GOOD

AFTERNOON
METABOLISM

BY : JEANETTE C. SY, MD
GASTROINTESTINAL
( DIGESTIVE )
SYSTEM
Every cell of the body needs
nourishment.
The digestive system with the help
of the circulatory system are
responsible in delivering these
nutrients to the cells.
 ANATOMY OF THE
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
- Consists of
a.) DIGESTIVE TRACT
- A tube extending from mouth to anus
- consists of the oral cavity, pharynx,
esophagus, stomach, SI, LI and anus
Digestive System

b.) Associated organs that secrete fluids

into the digestive tract
- Accessory glands – ex. Salivary glands
- Liver and pancreas
 PERITONEUM
- Body wall of the abdominal cavity
- 2 layers :
a. Visceral peritoneum
- covers the organs
b. Parietal peritoneum
- lines the walls of the abdominal cavity
 PERITONITIS
- Inflammation of the peritoneal membranes
- Can be life threatening
 MESENTERIES
- Connective tissue sheets which hold the organs
inside the abdominal cavity in place
- 2 types :
1. Lesser Omentum
- connects lesser curvature of the stomach to
liver & diaphragm
2. Greater Omentum
- connects greater curvature of stomach to the
transverse colon
 RETROPERITONEAL
- “Behind the peritoneum”
- Abdominal organs which lie against the
abdominal wall but with no mesenteries
- Includes : duodenum
pancreas
ascending / descending colon
rectum
kidneys
adrenal glands
urinary bladder
 TEETH
Children = 20 teeth
temporary / milk teeth
“primary or deciduous teeth”

Adults = 32 teeth
permanent
“secondary teeth”
starts at age 5-7 years
 TOOTH DISEASES
1. DENTAL CARIES
- “Tooth decay”
- Breakdown of enamel ( covers tooth)

5. PERIODONTAL DISEASE
- Inflammation and degeneration of the
periodontal ligaments, gingiva and bone
Functions of the Digestive System

1. Take in food
- Food and water are taken into the body
through the mouth
2. Break down the food
- Through the process of digestion, the
food is broken down from complex
molecules to smaller molecules that can
be absorbed
1. Absorb digested molecules
- The small molecules are absorbed
through the walls of the intestine for use
in the body
1. Provide nutrients
- The process of digestion and absorption
provides the body with water,
electrolytes, and other nutrients such as
vitamins and minerals
1. Eliminate wastes
- Undigested materials and waste
products are excreted into the digestive
tract and eliminated in the feces
 DIETARY FIBER
- “CELLULOSE” - indigestible
- Important to normal digestive function
- Cellulose provides bulk or fiber in the diet
- To facilitate movement of material through
the digestive tract by providing mass
against which the muscular wall of the
digestive tract can push
 Digestion, Absorption and Transport

DIGESTION
- Breakdown of food to molecules that are
small enough to be absorbed into the
circulation
TYPES :
2. MECHANICAL DIGESTION
- Breaks large food particles down into
smaller ones
1. CHEMICAL DIGESTION
- Involves the breaking of covalent
chemical bonds in molecules by the
digestive enzymes
ABSORPTION
- Begins in the stomach
- Mostly occur in duodenum and jejenum
and some in ileum
TRANSPORT
- 3 WAYS
1. Facilitated diffusion
2. Co-transport
3. Active transport

Note : # 2 & 3 require energy to move

molecules across the intestinal wall
 TRANSPORT MECHANISMS

1. SIMPLE DIFFUSION
- Random movement of solute molecules
from and area of high solute
concentration to an area of low solute
concentration
1. FACILITATED DIFFUSION
- A passive transport
- Energy NOT required
- Occur in any direction
- Move solutes from an area of high to an
area of low concentration
- Use specific protein carriers molecules
“FACILITATED DIFFUSION
CARRIERS”
- Ex. Glucose transport = 4 STEPS :
3. ACTIVE TRANSPORT
- Primary active transport
- The protein carrier molecule of the cell
membrane require energy (ATP) to
transport molecules
- WITHOUT ATP,
THERE IS NO TRANSPORT!
4. COTRANSPORT
- Secondary active transport
- Require ATP indirectly from transport of
Na+ molecules to transport another
molecule
- Ex. Na+ and glucose cotransport
- 4 STEPS :
 NUTRITION
- Is all about the study of FOOD and how
our body uses food as fuel for growth and
daily activities
- 2 Major Divisions :
1. Macronutrients - big
2. Micronutrients - small
PRINCIPLES OF
NUTRITION
 NUTRIENTS
Are the chemicals taken into the body that
provide energy and building blocks for
new molecules
Divided into 6 Major Classes :
3. Carbohydrates 4. Vitamins
4. Proteins 5. Minerals
5. Lipids 6. Water
 I. ENERGY NUTRIENTS
MACRONUTRIENTS :
- Carbohydrates
- Proteins
- Fats

Note : measured in grams (gm)

MICRONUTRIENTS :
- Vitamins
- Minerals

Note : measured in milligrams (mg),

micrograms (ug) and international units (IU)
MACRONUTRIENTS
 CARBOHYDRATES
- Consist primarily of starches, cellulose,
sucrose and small amounts of fructose
(fruit sugar) and lactose (milk sugar)

- Extra carbohydrates are converted into fat

 PROTEINS
- Are chains of amino acids
- Are necessary to build tissues of the body
like skin, muscles, organs
- Can be used as a source of energy (ATP)
- Excess are stored as glycogen and fats
 LIPIDS / FATS
- Include : TAG, phospholipids, steroids and
fat-soluble vitamins
- Extra fat can be use as fuel for the body or
stored as fat
Triglyceride
- TAG or triacylglycerol
(3 fatty acids bound to glycerol)
- Most common type of lipid
- Also known as FATS
Types :
2. Saturated Fats
- Fatty acids which have only one single
bonds between carbons
- Solid in room temp
- Found in meat, eggs, nuts, dairy
products, coconut and palm oil
2. Unsaturated Fats
- Monounsaturated or Polyunsaturated
- Have one or more double bonds btw
carbons
- Liquid in room temp
- Found in most fish and plant oils
Fats are not soluble in water, thus, they are
transported in the blood as lipid-protein
complexes or LIPOPROTEINS
TYPES :
2. LOW-DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN (LDL)
- “Bad Cholesterol”
- Carry cholesterol to the tissues for the
use by the cells
- Excess are deposited on arterial walls
(Atherosclerosis)
1. HIGH-DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN (HDL)
- “Good Cholesterol”
- Carry cholesterol from the tissues to the
liver, where cholesterol is removed from
the bloodstream and broken down or
excreted in bile
- Exercise = can elevate HDL
 TRANS FAT
- Are unsaturated fatty acids found when
vegetable oils are processed and made
more solid
- Processing is done to promote food
freshness and provide quality
- Usually found in meat and dairy products
- Can also increase LDL blood cholesterol
which can lead to heart disease
 FOOD

CARBOHYDRATE LIPID PROTEIN

MONO- FATTY MONO- AMINO

SACCHARIDES ACIDS GLYCERIDES ACIDS
 CARBOHYDRATES
Salivary
MOUTH amylase

POLYSACCHARIDES
DUODENUM Pancreatic
(Pancreas/Liver) amylase

DISACCHARIDES
SMALL INTESTINE Disaccharidases

MONOSACCHARIDES
MONOSACCHARIDES TRANSPORT

3. Monosaccharides are absorbed by

COTRANSPORT into the intestinal
epithelial cells
5. Monosaccharides move out of intestinal
epithelial cells by
FACILITATED DIFFUSION
3. They enter the capillaries of the intestinal
villi and are carried through the hepatic
portal vein to the liver
 capillary

2 FD

1
CT 3

2
FD
liver Cell
GLUCOSE
- carried from the liver by the circulation
- Enters the cell by
FACILITATED DIFFUSION
- INSULIN facilitates entry of glucose into
the cells
 DIABETES MELLITUS
- Lack of insulin (type 1 DM) or
- Absence of normal effect (type 2 DM)
- Result : not enough glucose is transported
into many cells of the body
- Thus : 1. cells do not have enough energy
for normal function
2. blood glucose is high
3. large amount of glucose pass into the
urine
 LIPIDS
MOUTH (SALIVARY GLANDS)

STOMACH

DUODENUM Bile Salts

(PANCREAS/LIVER) (Liver)

Lipase
(Pancreas)

SMALL INTESTINE Lipase

FATTY ACIDS and

MONOGLYCERIDES
EMULSIFICATION
- First step in lipid digestion
- Transformation of large lipid droplets into
much smaller droplets
- Accomplised by BILE SALTS
LIPID TRANSPORT

• Bile salts surround fatty acids and

monoglycerides to form MICELLES
• Micelles attach to the cell membrane of
intestinal epithelial cells, and the FA and
monoglycerides pass by
SIMPLE DIFFUSION
into the intestinal epithelial cells
3. W/in the intestinal epithelial cell, the FA
and monoglycerides are converted to
TRIGLYCERIDES (TAG);
protein coat the TAG to form
CHYLOMICRONS,
which move out of the intestinal epithelial
cells by exocytosis
4. The chylomicrons enter the lacteals
(lymphatic capillaries) of the
intestinal villi and are carried through the

lymphatic system to the general

circulation.
- CHYLOMICRONS :
1. are transported to the liver for
storage or for use as energy
2. are transported to the adipose tissue
where they are stored until an
energy source is needed elsewhere
in the body
Bile salts
+ lipids (FA+Monoglycerides)

MICELLES
simple diffusion
intestinal epithelial wall
TAG
protein coat the TAG

CHYLOMICRONS
leave epithelial cells by exocytosis and enter
Lacteals (lymphatic capillaries)

LIVER OR ADIPOSE TISSUES (storage)

 PROTEINS
MOUTH
(SALIVARY GLANDS)

STOMACH Pepsin Smaller polypeptides

DUODENUM Trypsin
(PANCREAS/LIVER) Chymotrypsin
Carboxypeptidase

PEPTIDES

SMALL INTESTINE Peptidases

AMINO ACID
Amino acid
+
Na+
1 COTRANSPORT
INTESTINAL
EPITHELIAL CELL
2 ACTIVE
TRANSPORT

CAPILLARY LIVER
3
AMINO ACID TRANSPORT

• Amino acids are absorbed by

COTRANSPORT into the intestinal
epithelial cells
• Amino acids move out of the intestinal
epithelial cells by ACTIVE TRANSPORT
• They enter the capillaries of the intestinal
villi and are transported to the liver
MICRONUTRIENTS
 VITAMINS
Types :
2. Water-Soluble Vitamins
- Vitamins C and B – complex
- Not stored in the body
- All are available as dietary supplements
1. FAT-SOLUBLE VITAMINS
- Vitamins A, D, E and K
- Stored in the liver
 MINERALS
- Inorganic nutrients essential for normal
metabolic functions
- Examples :
Sodium, Potassium, Chloride, Calcium,
Iron, Iodine Magnesium, Phosphate, Zinc
 WATER
- Approx 9L of water enters the digestive
system each day
- We ingest about 2L of water
and the other 7L is from digestive
secretions
Mouth (ingestion 2L)

Salivary gland secretions (1L)

Gastric secretions (2L)

Pacreatic secretions (1.2L) / Bile (0.7L)

Small Intestine secretions (2L)

WATER ABSORPTION

Small intestine = 92%

Large intestine = 6-7%
Feces = 1%
 II. ENERGY BALANCE
METABOLIC RATE
- Total amount of energy produced and
used by the body per unit of time
- Estimated by measuring the amount of
OXYGEN used per minute
- 1L Oxygen is estimated to produce
4.825 kcal of energy
METABOLIC ENERGY
- Used in 3 Ways :
3. For basal metabolism
4. For muscle contraction
5. For assimilation of food
BASAL METABOLIC RATE (BMR)
- Is the amount of energy expended at rest
- It is the energy needed to keep the
resting body functional
- Calculated in expended kcal per square
meter of body surface per hour
- BMR for 70kg male = 38 kcal/m2/hr
 What is an
adequate diet?
 CALORIC REQUIREMENTS
• CARBOHYDRATES – 60%
• PROTEINS - 10%
• FATS – not more than 30%
- 8-10% saturated fats
- upto 10% polyunsaturated fats
- upto 15% monounsaturated fats
CALORIES PER GRAM

3. Carbohydrates = 4
4. Protein = 4
5. Fats = 9
FOOD GUIDE PYRAMID
Food Guide Pyramid
- Suggests :
1. eat different amounts of foods from
each basic food group
2. use fats and sugars sparingly
3. choose variety by eating the indicated
number of servings per day
 Recommended Daily Allowances

Are the nutrient intakes that are sufficient to

meet the needs of the nearly all the
healthy people in the group (97%-98%)

Note : RDA’s have been developed for

different-aged males and females from
infants to adults
FOOD LABEL

The Daily Value

on food labels
are based on a
2000kcal
reference diet
THANK
YOU