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Introductory Lectures
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Design of Structures - determine forces acting on the structure using structural analysis - proportion different elements economically, stability, safety, serviceability functionality Structural concrete is commonly used for different civil engineering structures
Introductory Lectures
Structural concrete concrete and steel Complimentary properties - Concrete resists compression - Steel resists tension in most cases Structural concrete plain, reinforced, prestressed.
Code of Practice
Designers guided by guidelines and specifications called Code of Practice Codes specified by different organizations to ensure public safety Codes specify design loads, allowable stresses, materials , construction types and other details US American Concrete Institute Code 318ACI 318 or ACI code
Elastic Approach
Not used in ACI or rather deleted by ACI Based on Elastic Theory Assumes a straight line stress distribution along the depth of the concrete member Members are proportioned on the basis of allowable stresses on concrete and steel
Units
SI system (System International) W= m g = 1 kg. x 9.81 m/s2 = 9.81 N 1 kN = 1000 N 1 m. = 100 cm.
Loads
Members design to resist loads Two types of loads - Dead Loads weight of structure and other elements placed on it tiles, roofing , walls - Live Loads steady / unsteady , slowly or /rapidly, laterally or vertically - weight of people, furniture, wind, temperature, earthquake etc.
Loads to be specified
ACI does not specify loads American National Standards Institute specifies loads AASHTO specifies highway and railway loading for bridges and highways
Safety Provisions
Structural Members designed for higher loads than actual to have margin / safety against failure Multiply actual loads by load factors to get factored loads Load factors depend on how accurately the loads can be estimated eg. Dead loads lower load factors compared to Live loads. Several load combinations have to be also considered to design the structure for different load combinations
Concrete Casting
Plastic Concrete placed in a mold Cured Left to set, harden and gain strength with time Strength of concrete depends on many factors a. Water Cement ratio b. Properties and proportions of constituents c. Method of mixing and curing d. Age of Concrete e. Loading Conditions f. Shape and Dimensions of tested specimens
Concrete Mix
Proper proportioning of different components and well graded sound aggregates give strength to concrete Admixtures give concrete desired strength and quality Concrete is subsequently poured using mixers, vibrated to get a dense mix at site and then cured to get concrete of desired strength and properties Concrete strength increases with age about 70 % in 7 days and 85-90 % in 14 days (28 days strength is a benchmark of design)
Concrete Strength
Concrete strength is measured by testing cubes (6) or cylinders (6 x 12) Performance of RCC depends on relative strength of concrete and steel Stress-strain behavior of both materials is important. Stress-strain behavior is assessed using 6x12 cylinders
Initial straight line portion Max. stress at about 0.002 strain Rupture at about 0.003 strain Concrete strength 3000-6000 psi (2142 N/mm.2) High strength concrete recently used
Steel Reinforcement
Steel reinforcement can be of different types - Round Bars to ( 6mm. To 36 mm.) and 1 (45 mm.) and 2 (57 mm.) - Round bars can be plain or deformed (Lect.0a) - Plain bars used for stirrups, Deformed bars used for main reinforcement to provide bond
Flexure Analysis
In proportioning reinforced concrete structural members, three main items can be investigated: 1. The safety of the structure, which is maintained by providing adequate internal design strength 2. Deflection of the structural member under service loads. The maximum value of deflection must be limited and is usually specified as a factor of the span, to preserve the appearance of the structure
Flexure Analysis
3. Control of cracking conditions under service loads. Visible cracks spoil the appearance of the structure and also permit humidity to penetrate the concrete, causing corrosion of steel and consequently weakening the reinforced concrete member. The ACI Code implicitly limits crack widths to 0.016 in. (0.40mm) for interior members and 0.013 in. (0.33 mm) for exterior members. Control of cracking is achieved by adopting and limiting the spacing of the tension bars
Assumptions
RCC sections are non-homogenous since the section is made up of two materials concrete and steel Proportioning ( determining sizes and areas of each component) by ultimate strength is based on assumptions These assumptions make the design simplerbut their validity needs to be checked and kept in mind
Assumptions
1. Strain in Concrete is the same as that in reinforcing steel at that level this will happen provided the bond is adequate 2. Strain in concrete is proportional to the distance from the neutral axis 3. The modulus of elasticity of all grades of steel is taken as E, = 29 x106 lb./in2 ( 200,000 MPa or N/mm.2 ) The stress in the elastic range is equal to the strain multiplied by Es
The neutral axis is an axis in the cross section of a beam or shaft along which there are no longitudinal stresses or strains. If the section is symmetric, isotropic and is not curved before a bend occurs, then the neutral axis is at the geometric centroid. All fibers on one side of the neutral axis are in a state of tension, while those on the opposite side are in compression
Assumptions
4. Plane cross-sections continue to be plane after bending. 5. Tensile strength of concrete is neglected because a. concrete's tensile strength is only about 10% of its compressive strength, b. cracked concrete is assumed to be not effective, and c. before cracking, the entire concrete section is effective in resisting the external moment.
Assumptions
6. At failure the maximum strain at the extreme compression fibres is assumed equal to 0.003 - ACI Code provision 7. For design strength, the shape of the compressive concrete stress distribution may be assumed to be rectangular, parabolic, or trapezoidal. In this course, a rectangular shape will be assumed (ACI Code, Section 10.2)
At zero external load, each beam carried its own weight in addition to that of the loading system, which consisted of an I-beam and some plates.
Both beams behaved similarly at this stage
At any section, the entire concrete section, in addition to the steel reinforcement, resisted the bending moment and shearing forces.
Maximum stress occurred at the section of maximum bending moment-that is, at midspan. Maximum tension stress at the bottom fibers was much less than the modulus of rupture of concrete. Compressive stress at the top fibers was much less than the ultimate concrete compressive stress, f c . No cracks were observed at this stage.
This stage was reached when the external load, P, was increased from 0 to P1 , which produced tensile stresses at the bottom fibers equal to the modulus of rupture of concrete.
At this stage the entire concrete section was effective, with the steel bars at the tension side sustaining a strain equal to that of the surrounding concrete Stress in the steel bars was equal to the stress in the adjacent concrete multiplied by the modular ratio, n, the ratio of the modulus of elasticity of steel to that of concrete. (n= Es / Ec - Strain same stress not same) The compressive stress of concrete at the top fibers was still very small compared with the compressive strength, fc . The behavior of beams was elastic within this stage of loading.
Between cracks, the concrete bottom fibers had tensile stresses, but they were of negligible value. It can be assumed that concrete below the neutral axis did not participate in resisting external moments
Stage 3 contd Load increase beyond P1 In general, the development of cracks and the spacing and maximum width of cracks depend on many factors, such as the level of stress in the steel bars, distribution of steel bars in the section, concrete cover, and grade of steel used. At this stage, the deflection of the beams increased clearly, because the moment of inertia of the cracked section was less than that of the uncracked section. Cracks started about the midspan of the beam, but other parts along the length of the beam did not crack. When load was again increased, new cracks developed, extending toward the supports. The spacing of these cracks depends on the concrete cover and the level of steel stress. The width of cracks also increased. One or two of the central cracks were most affected by the load, and their crack widths increased appreciably, whereas the other crack widths increased much less.
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At high compressive stresses, the strain of the concrete increased rapidly, and the stress of concrete at any strain level was estimated from a stress-strain graph obtained by testing a standard cylinder to failure for the same concrete. As for the steel, the stresses were still below the yield stress, and the stress at any level of strain was obtained by multiplying the strain of steel, by Es, the modulus of elasticity of steel.
Fig. 3.3 a
Balanced Section
Steel may reach its yield strength at the same time as concrete reaches its ultimate strength, Fig. 3.3b. The section is called a balanced section.
Fig. 3.3 b
Fig. 3c
Strain levels
Balanced Section
The balanced strain condition develops in the section when the tension steel, with the first yield, reaches a strain corresponding to its yield strength, fy , or s = fy/Es just as the maximum strain in concrete at the extreme compression fibers reaches 0.003, Fig. 3.5.
Load Factors
For the design of structural members, the factored design load is obtained by multiplying the dead load by a load factor and the specified live load by another load factor The magnitude of the load factor must be adequate to limit the probability of sudden failure and to permit an economical structural design The choice of a proper load factor or a proper factor of safety depends mainly on the importance of the structure (whether a courthouse or a warehouse), the degree of warning needed prior to collapse, the importance of each structural member (whether a beam or column), the expectation of overload, the accuracy of artisanry, and the accuracy of calculations
Load Factors
Based on historical studies of various structures, experience, and the principles of probability, the ACI Code adopts a load factor of 1.2 for dead loads and 1.6 for live loads. The dead load factor is smaller, because the dead load can be computed with a greater degree of certainty than the live load.
The choice of factors reflects the degree of the economical design as well as the degree of safety and serviceability of the structure. It is also based on the fact that the performance of the structure under actual loads must be satisfactorily within specific limits. If the required strength is denoted by U (ACI Code, Section 9.2), and those due to wind and seismic forces are W and E, respectively, according to the ACI Code, the required strength U, shall be the most critical of the following factors (based on the ASCE 7-05)
Load Combinations
Load Combinations
Balanced Section
In Fig. 3.7, if concrete fails, c, = 0.003, and if steel yields, as in the case of a balanced section, fs = fy
Balanced Section
In Fig. 3.7, if concrete fails, c, = 0.003, and if steel yields, as in the case of a balanced section, fs = fy
Balanced Section
Let us consider the case of a balanced section, which implies that at ultimate load the strain in concrete equals 0.003 and that of steel equals the first yield stress at distance dt divided by the modulus of elasticity of steel, fy /ES,
Balanced Section
Balanced Section
Balanced Section
Internal Moment
Design Moment
Ratio of a to d