2 Fundamentals of Casting Me206 t111

METAL CASTING-FUNDAMENTALS - PART 2
October 2011 ME 206 Manufacturing Processes 1

Dr Anwar K Sheikh
1
Introduction
Casting melt the metal, pour into a mold and solidify
Advantages
Complex geometries
Can be net shaped
Can produce very large parts
Any metals
Can be mass-produced
Disadvantages
Limitation in mechanical properties, porosity,
dimensional accuracy, surface finish
Safety Hazard

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Introduction (continued)
Dated back 6000 years
Ingot vs. Shape casting
Polymers and ceramics are cast as well.
Issues in casting
Flow
Heat Transfer
Selection of Mold Materials
Solidification- Nucleation and Growth
Depending on how we control solidification, these
events influence the size, shape, uniformity and
chemical composition of the grains.
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Fundamentals of Casting
Six basic factors involved in the casting process:
Mold cavity
Melting process
Pouring technique
Solidification process
Part removal process
Post processing

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Overview
A Foundry is a casting factory.
Workers are Foundrymen.
Mold Materials sand, plaster,
ceramic and metals.
Open Molds Simple parts
Closed Molds Complex parts.
A passageway - the gating
system
Expendable or permanent molds
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Flask
Mold
Runner
Downsprue
Parting line
Riser
Process Factors
Molten metal problems
Reaction of the metal and its environment can lead to
poor quality castings. Oxygen and molten metal react
to form slag or dross. These impurities can become
trapped in castings to impair surface finish,
machinability, or reduce the mechanical properties of
the castings.
Fluidity
Molten metal must flow then freeze into the desired
shape. Incorrect flow characteristics can result in
short shots, incorrect part tolerances, cracks in
castings, voids, etc.

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Process Factors

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Gating System
Correct design of the gating system is a must.
Gating system controls the speed, rate, and delivery
of molten material into the mold cavity.
Example: PIM general rule is gate depth is
equal to 1/3 its width
Patterns
Shrinkage allowance
Cast Iron = 1/10 - 1/8 in/ft
Aluminum = 1/8 - 5/32 in/ft
Brass = 3/16 in/ft
Amount of draft
Finish material allowance
Final dimensional accuracy of the casting

Basic features of Molds
Sand Casting Molds
Mold: cope (upper half) & drag (bottom half)
Flask
Parting line
Pattern the mold cavity
The gating system pouring cup, (down) sprue, runner
Riser a source of liquid metal to compensate for
shrinkage during solidification
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Casting Terms
Pattern
Flask
Cope
Drag
Core
Core Box
Core Print
Mold Cavity
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Riser
Gating System
Pouring Cup
Sprue
Runner
Gate
Parting Line
Draft
Sand Mold Features
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Figure 5.10 A Schematic illustration of a sand mold, showing
various features.
Mold Features
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FIGURE 5.10 Schematic illustration of a typical sand mold showing various features.
MOLD
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Riser-Gated Casting
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Schematic illustration of a typical riser-gated casting. Risers
serve as reservoirs, supplying molten metal to the casting as it
shrinks during solidification. Source: American Foundrymens
Society.
Heating
The heat energy required to melt (or to remove during solidification
and cooling to room temperature) is the sum of:
1) The heat to raise the temperature to the melting point
2) The heat of fusion to convert it from solid to liquid
3) The heat to raise the molten metal to the desired pouring
temperature (superheat temperature)
Total Heat Energy required
H= V [C
s
(T
m
-T
o
)+H
f
+C
l
(T
p
-T
m
)]
where
H=Btu (J)
= density, Ibm/in.
3
(g/cm
3
), V=volume , in.
3
(cm
3
)
C
s
=specific heat for solid metal , Btu/lbm-
0
F (J/g-
0
C)
C
l
=specific heat for liquid metal , Btu/lbm-
0
F (J/g-
0
C)
T
m
=melting temperature ,
0
F (
0
C) ,T
o
=starting temperature ,
0
F (
0
C)
T
p
=pouring temperature, ,
0
F (
0
C)
H
f
= Heat of fusion , Btu/lbm (J/g)
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Heating Metal for Casting-Problem
One cubic foot of a certain eutectic alloy will be heated in a crucible from
room temperature to 200
0
above its melting point for casting. The
properties of the alloy are density = 0.15 lbm/in.
3
. melting point = 1300
0
F.
specific heat of the metal = 0.082 Btu/ lbm-
0
F in the solid state and 0.071
Btu/lbm-
0
F in the liquid state: and heat of fusion = 72 Btu/lbm. How much
heat energy must be added to accomplish the heating. assuming no losses.

Solution: Assume ambient temperature in the foundry = 80
0
F
and that the densities of liquid and solid states of the metal are
the same. Noting that 1 ft
3
= 1728 in.
3
and substituting the
property values into Eq. (H= V [C
s
(T
m
-T
o
)+H
f
+ C
l
(T
p
-T
m
)] ). we have
H = (0.15)(1728){0.082(1300 - 80) + 72 + 0.071(1500 - 1300)}
= 48,273.4 Btu

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Foundry Practice
Furnace
Cupolas
Direct Fuel-fired furnace
Crucible Furnace
Electric-arc Furnace
Induction Furnace
Pouring with ladle
Solidification watch for oxidation
Trimming, surface cleaning, repair and heat treat,
inspection
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Commercial Melting Methods
Coke-fueled cupola (cast irons) - continuous
Electric
Induction (steels, cast irons, Ni, Al, Cu)
Coreless - batch
Channel - continuous
Resistance (Al, Mg, Zn, Pb)
Crucible - batch
Reverberatory - continuous
Arc (steels, cast irons, Ti) - batch
Gas-Fired
Crucible (Al, Mg, Zn, Pb) - batch
Reverberatory (Al, Zn, Pb) - continuous

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Types of Melting Furnaces
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Figure Two types of melting furnaces used in foundries: (a) crucible, and (b) cupola.
FURNACES
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Gas Fired Furnace
Induction Furnaces
Electric Resistance
Furnace _Melting
Aluminum
Furnace Issues
Energy efficiency: Electric melting furnaces are
generally about 3 times more efficient than gas-fired
furnaces. However, if the energy content of electricity
(BTU/KWH) and natural gas (BTU/Cubic feet) are
equilibrated, for the same amount of energy electricity
is historically about 3 times the cost of natural gas.

Melt losses: Gas-fired furnaces melting aluminum
typically generate about 3% dross by weight, whereas
electric furnaces generate about 1%.
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Pouring
Factors affecting pouring
Pouring temperature (vs.
melting temp.)
Pouring rate
Too slow, metal freezes
Too high, turbulence
Turbulence
Accelerate the formation of
oxides
Mold erosion
Voids?
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Pouring Analysis
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Figure 5.10 A Schematic illustration of a sand mold, showing
various features.
Point 0 (A
0
, V
0
)Reference
level h
0
= 0,

distance from
reference level
Point 1 (A
1
, V
1
) -
h
1
distance from
reference level
Point x
(A
x
, V
x
) -
h
xx
distance
from
reference
level
Point 2 (A
2
, V
2
) -
h
2
distance from
reference level
h1
hx
h2
Pouring Analysis
Bernoullis theorem at any two points in a flowing liquid

h=head, p=pressure, =density, v=flow velocity, g=gravity,
f=friction loss (Suffix x identified distance of point x from reference
point( reference level) o. Applying Bernoulli's Theorem at Point 0 )
and 1

Assuming point 0 is reference, no frictional loss and same pressure
(p
0
=p
1
), V
o
=0, and h
0
=0

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2 2
1 1 2 2
1 2
2 2
p v p v
h h f
g g g g
+ + = + + +
g
v
g
p
h
g
v
g
p
h
2 2
2
1 1
1
2
0 0
0
+ + = + +

1
2
1
;
2
2
1
1
gh v
g
v
h = =
Pouring Analysis
Applying Bernoulli's Theorem at Point 0 and 2

Assuming point 0 is reference, no frictional loss and same pressure
(p
0
=p
2
), V
o
=0, and h
0
=0

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g
v
g
p
h
g
v
g
p
h
2 2
2
2 2
2
2
0 0
0
+ + = + +

2
2
2
;
2
2
2
2
gh v
g
v
h = =
Pouring Analysis (continued)
Continuity law
Volumetric flow;

Mold fill time (MFT) =Time required to fill the cavity

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2 2 1 1
A v A v Q = =
V
MFT
f
Q
t = =
Pouring Analysis (continued)
Similarly Applying Bernoulli's Theorem and Continuity Equation at
Point 0 and x , where point 0 is reference point, there is no
frictional loss and same pressure at all ponits in the mold(p
0
=p
x
),
V
o
=0, and h
0
=0, we get

2
1
1
2
h
h
A
A
=
x
x x x
h
h
A A A gh A gh Q
1
1 1 1
2 2 = = =
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x x
A v A v Q = =
1 1
x
gh
x
v
g
x
v
x
h 2 ;
2
2
= =
If h
x
=h
2
then
Reference Point 0
Point 2
Point 1
Point x
h1
hx
h2
Reynolds Number (Re)
Higher Re, greater tendency for turbulence flow
Turbulence and laminar flow

Re=vD/

Re 2,000(laminar)
2,000 to 20,000 (mixture of laminar-turbulence).
greater than 20,000 turbulence resulting in air
entrainment and dross(scum) formation

Minimize turbulence by avoiding a certain range in flow
direction
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Fluidity
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Molten metal must flow then freeze into the desired shape.
Incorrect flow characteristics can result in short shots,
incorrect part tolerances, cracks in castings, voids, etc.
Fluidity: A measure of the capability of a metal to flow into
and fill the mold before freezing.
Inverse of viscosity

Factors affecting fluidity
Pouring temperature
Metal composition
Viscosity
Heat transfer to the surroundings
Heat of fusion
Solidification
Pure metals: good fluidity
Alloys: not as good
Fluidity Test
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Figure 5.1X A test method for
fluidity using a spiral mold. The
fluidity index is the length of the
solidified metal in the spiral
passage. The greater the length of
the solidified metal, the greater is
its fluidity.
Solidification of Pure Metals
FIGURE 5.1 (a) Temperature as a function of time for the solidification of pure metals. Note that
freezing takes place at a constant temperature. (b) Density as a function of time.
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Solidification (Pure Metals- Continued)
Undercooling
Solidification occurs at a
constant temperature and
supercooled Temperature
Actual freezing during the local
solidification time

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Pouring Temp.
Total
Solidification
Time
Local
Solidification
Time
Liquid
Cooling
Solid
Cooling
Cooling Curve
T
m
time
Dendritic growth
Temperature & Density for Castings
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FIGURE 5.1 (a) Temperature as a function of time for the solidification of pure metals.
Note that freezing takes place at a constant temperature. (b) Density as a function of
time.
Solidification of Alloys
Most Alloys freeze over a temperature range, not at a
single temperature.
Chemical compositional gradiency within a single grain
Chemical compositional gradiency throughout the casting
ingot segregation
Eutectic Alloys Solidification occurs at a single
temperature
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Two-Phased Alloys
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FIGURE 5.2 (a) Schematic illustration of grains, grain boundaries, and particles
dispersed throughout the structure of a two-phase system, such as lead-copper alloy.
The grains represent lead in solid solution of copper, and the particles are lead as a
second phase. (b) Schematic illustration of a two-phase system, consisting of two sets
of grains: dark and light. Dark and light grains have their own compositions and
properties.
Phase Diagram for Nickel-Copper
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FIGURE 5.3 Phase diagram for nickel-copper alloy system obtained by a low rate of solidification. Note that pure nickel and
pure copper each have one freezing or melting temperature. The top circle on the right depicts the nucleation of crystals; the
second circle shows the formation of dendrites; and the bottom circle shows the solidified alloy with grain boundaries.
Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram
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FIGURE 5.4 (a) The iron-iron carbide phase diagram. (b) Detailed view of the microstructures above and below the
eutectoid temperature of 727C (1341F). Because of the importance of steel as an engineering material, this
diagram is one of the most important phase diagrams.
Cast Structures
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Figure 10.5
Schematic
illustration of three
basic types of cast
structures: (a)
columnar dendritic;
(b) equiaxed
dendritic; and (c)
equiaxed
nondendritic.
Source: D. Apelian.
Figure 5.6 Schematic illustration
of cast structures in (a) plane front,
single phase, and (b) plane front,
two phase. Source: D. Apelian.
Cast Structures
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FIGURE 5.9 Schematic illustration of cast
structures in (a) plane front, single phase, and
(b) plane front, two phase. Source: After D.
Apelian.
FIGURE 5.8 Schematic
illustration of three basic
types of cast structures:
(a) columnar dendritic;
(b) equiaxed dendritic; and
(c) equiaxed nondendritic.
Source: After D. Apelian.
Cast Structures of Metals
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Figure 5.8 Schematic
illustration of three cast
structures of metals
solidified in a square mold:
(a) pure metals; (b) solid-
solution alloys; and (c)
structure obtained by using
nucleating agents. Source:
G. W. Form, J. F. Wallace,
J. L. Walker, and A. Cibula.
Preferred Texture
Development
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Figure 5.9 Development of a preferred texture at a cool
mold wall. Note that only favorably oriented grains grow
away from the surface of the mold.
Solidification Patterns for Gray Cast Iron
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FIGURE 5.7 Schematic illustration of three basic types of cast structures: (a) columnar dendritic; (b)
equiaxed dendritic; and (c) equiaxed nondendritic. Source: After D. Apelian.
Riser Design
Therefore for riser design: t riser > t casting allows molten
metal to flow into the casting to compensate for
volumetric solidification shrinkage (risers must rise
above the casting to function).

Type of Risers-

Side Risers and Top Risers

Open riser and Blind Risers

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Casting/Mold Yield
Risers can help eliminate shrinkage pore defects, but there
is a penalty to be paid in terms of yield (melt costs) and
removal costs (labor and cutting tools/supplies)
The ratio of saleable casting weight versus total weight of
molten metal poured to produce the casting:
% Yield = [trimmed casting weight/pour weight] x
100

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Volumetric Solidification Contraction
TABLE 5.1 Volumetric solidification contraction or
expansion percentages for various cast metals.
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Contraction (%):
Aluminum 7.1
Zinc 6.5
Al-4.5% Cu 6.3
Gold 5.5
White iron 4-5.5
Copper 4.9
Brass (70-30) 4.5
Magnesium 4.2
90% Cu- 10% Al 4
Carbon steels 2.5-4
Al-12% Si 3.8
Lead 3.2
Expansion (%):
Bismuth 3.3
Silicon 2.9
Gray iron 2.5
Avoiding Shrinkage Cavities-1
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Casting Cross-Sections
Figure 12.2 Examples of designs showing the importance of maintaining uniform cross-
sections in castings to avoid hot spots and shrinkage cavities.
Design Modifications to Avoid Defects in
Castings
FIGURE 5.39 (a) Suggested design modifications to avoid defects in castings.
Note that sharp corners are avoided to reduce stress concentrations. (b)-(d)
Examples of designs that show the importance of maintaining uniform cross-
sections in castings to avoid hot spots and shrinkage cavities.
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Alloy Solidification & Temperature
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FIGURE 5.6 Schematic illustration of alloy solidification and temperature distribution in the solidifying
metal. Note the formation of dendrites in the semi-solid (mushy) zone.
Temperature Distribution
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FIGURE 5.11 Temperature distribution at the mold wall and liquid-metal interface during
solidification of metals in casting.
Mold Filling and Solidification
FIGURE 5.45 Simulation of mold filling and solidification. (a) 3.7 seconds
after start of pour. Note that the mushy zone has been established before
the mold is completely filled. (b) Using a vent in the mold for removal of
entrapped air five seconds after pour. Source: S. Shepel and S. Paolucci,
University of Notre Dame.
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Solidification Time
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Figure 5.16 Solidified skin on a steel casting. The remaining molten metal is poured out
at the times indicated in the figure. Hollow ornamental and decorative objects are made
by a process called slush casting, which is based on this principle. Source: H. F.
Taylor, J. Wulff, and M. C. Flemings.
Solidification Time of a Casting
Chvorinovs Empirical relationship: Solidification time as a
function of the size and shape

V=volume A=surface area and n=2
C=experimentally determined value

Used in riser design: the solidification time of the riser
must be greater than the solidification time of the cast
part.
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n
s
A
V
C t
|
.
|
\
|
=
Slush Casting
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FIGURE 5.12 Solidified skin on a steel casting; the remaining molten metal is poured out at the
times indicated in the figure. Hollow ornamental and decorative objects are made by a process
called slush casting, which is based on this principle. Source: After H.F. Taylor, J. Wulff, and
M.C. Flemings.
Chvorinovs Rule:
Cast Material
Properties
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FIGURE 5.13 Mechanical properties for
various groups of cast alloys. Compare with
various tables of properties in Chapter 3.
Source: Courtesy of Steel Founders'
Society of America.
Microstructure for Cast Irons
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FIGURE 5.14 Microstructure for cast irons. (a) ferritic gray iron with graphite flakes; (b) ferritic nodular iron, (ductile
iron) with graphite in nodular form; and (c) ferritic malleable iron. This cast iron solidified as white cast iron, with the
carbon present as cementite (Fe3C), and was heat treated to graphitize the carbon.
Properties & Applications of Cast Iron
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TABLE 5.4 Properties and typical applications
of cast irons.
General Characteristics of Casting
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TABLE 5.2 General characteristics of casting processes.
Typical Applications &
Characteristics
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TABLE 5.3 Typical applications for castings and casting
characteristics.
Nonferrous Alloys
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TABLE 5.5 Typical properties of nonferrous casting alloys.
Casting Quality
Casting defects
Misruns
Cold shut
Cold shots
Shrinkage cavity
Microporosity
Hot Tearing
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Sand Mold defects
Sand blow
Pinholes
Sand wash
Scabs
Penetration
Mold shift
Core shift
Mold crack
Shrinkage
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TABLE 5.1 Volumetric solidification contraction or
expansion for various cast metals.
Directional Solidification
To minimize the damage during casting, the region most
distant from the liquid metal supply needs to freeze first
and the solidification needs to process toward the riser.
Based on Chvorinovs rule, the section with lower V/A ratio
should freeze first.
Use Chills: Internal and External chills which encourage
rapid cooling. (See Fig.5.17)
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Elimination of Porosity in Castings
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FIGURE 5.37 (a) Suggested design modifications to avoid defects in castings. Note that sharp
corners are avoided to reduce stress concentrations; (b, c, d) examples of designs showing the
importance of maintaining uniform cross-sections in castings to avoid hot spots and shrinkage
cavities.
Avoiding Shrinkage Cavities -2
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Figure Examples of
design modifications to
avoid shrinkage cavities
in castings. Source: Steel
Castings Handbook, 5th
ed. Steel Founders'
Society of America, 1980.
Used with permission.
Various Types of Chills Used in Castings to
Eliminate Porosity
FIGURE 5.17
Various types of
(a) internal and
(b) external chills
(dark areas at
corners), used in
castings to
eliminate porosity
caused by
shrinkage. Chills
are placed in
regions where
there is a large
volume of metal,
as shown in (c).
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Chills
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FIGURE 5.35 Various types of (a) internal and (b) external chills (dark areas at corners), used in
castings to eliminate porosity caused by shrinkage. Chills are placed in regions where there is a
larger volume of metal, as shown in (c).
Casting Defects
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Figure 5.17B Examples of common defects in castings. These defects can be minimized or eliminated
by proper design and preparation of molds and control of pouring procedures. Source: J. Datsko.
Hot Tears
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Figure 5.17A Examples of hot tears in castings. These defects occur because the casting
cannot shrink freely during cooling, owing to constraints in various portions of the molds and
cores. Exothermic (heat-producing) compounds may be used (as exothermic padding) to
control cooling at critical sections to avoid hot tearing.

Solubility of Hydrogen in Aluminum
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Figure 5.18 Solubility of hydrogen in
aluminum. Note the sharp decrease in
solubility as the molten metal begins to
solidify.
Casting Processes
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PROCESS ADVANTAGES LIMITATIONS
Sand Almost any metal is cast; no l imit to si ze,
shape or wei ght; low tool ing cost.
Some finishing required; somewhat
coarse fi nishl wide tolerances.
Shel l mold Good dimensi onal accuracy and surface
finish; hi gh producti on rate.
Part si ze limited; expensi ve patterns
and equipment required.
Expendabl e pattern Most metal s cast wi th no limi t to si ze;
complex shapes
Patterns have l ow strength and can
be costly for low quantiti es.
Pl aster mold Intricate shapes; good dimensi onal
accuracy and fi nish; low porosi ty.
Limi ted to nonferrous metals; limi ted
si ze and volume of production; mol d
making time rel ati vely long.
Ceramic mold Intricate shapes; close tolerance parts;
good surface finish.
Limi ted si ze.
Investment Intricate shapes; excel lent surface fini sh
and accuracy; almost any metal cast.
Part si ze limited; expensi ve patterns,
molds, and labor.
Permanent mol d Good surface fi nish and dimensional
accuracy; l ow porosi ty; high production
rate.
High mold cost; li mi ted shape and
intricacy; not suitable for high-mel ting-
point metal s.
Die Excellent dimensi onal accuracy and
surface fini sh; high production rate.
Die cost is hi gh; part size l imi ted;
usually limi ted to nonferrous metals;
long lead time.
Centrifugal Large cyl indrical parts wi th good qual i ty;
hi gh producti on rate.
Equipment is expensive; part shape
l imited.
TABLE 5.8 Casting processes, and their advantages and limitations.
Austenite-Pearlite Transformation
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FIGURE 5.32 (a) Austenite to pearlite
transformation of iron-carbon alloys as a
function of time and temperature. (b)
Isothermal transformation diagram obtained
from (a) for a transformation temperature of
675C (1247F). (c) Microstructures obtained
for a eutectoid iron-carbon alloy as a function
of cooling rate. Source: Courtest of ASM
International.
Phase Diagram for Aluminum-
Copper
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FIGURE 5.33 (a) Phase diagram for the aluminum-copper alloy system. (b) Various
microstructures obtained during the age-hardening process.
Outline of Heat Treating
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TABLE 5.7 Outline of heat
treatment processes for
surface hardening.
Heat Treatment Temperature Ranges
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FIGURE 5.34 Temperature ranges for heat treating plain-carbon steels, as
indicated on the iron-iron carbide phase diagram.
Casting Processes Comparison
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TABLE 5.8 Casting Processes, and their Advantages and Limitations.
Product Design Considerations
Geometric simplicity
Corners
Section thicknesses Hot spot
Draft
Use of Cores
Dimensional tolerances and surface finish
Machining allowance
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Casting Design Modifications
FIGURE 5.40 Examples of casting design modifications. Source: Steel
Castings Handbook, 5
th
ed., Steel Founders Society of America, 1980.
Used with permission.
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Design Modifications
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FIGURE 5.38 Suggested
design modifications to
avoid defects in castings.
Source: Courtesy of The
North American Die Casting
Association.
Design Practices for Die-Cast Parts
FIGURE 5.41 Examples of undesirable and desirable design practices
for die-cast parts. Note that section-thickness uniformity is
maintained throughout the part. Source: Courtesy of The North
American Die Casting Association.
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Economics of Casting
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79
FIGURE 5.39 Economic comparison of making a part by two different casting processes. Note that because of the
high cost of equipment, die casting is economical mainly for large production runs. Source: The North American Die
Casting Association.
Summary
Successful casting engineering requires a holistic approach
which includes concurrent consideration of:
Alloy selection/functional requirements/thermal treatments
Melting method/melt quality
Casting process/economics
Metal delivery system design
The location and amount of solidification shrinkage
Maximizing casting yield
Downstream processing requirements
Each casting geometry, alloy, and process has its own unique
engineering challenges. Applying physical and chemical
principles to the problems yields the best results!
Dr Anwar K Sheikh
80

2 Fundamentals of Casting Me206 t111

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METAL CASTING-FUNDAMENTALS - PART 2

October 2011 ME 206 Manufacturing Processes 1

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