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Analogue System And Instrumentations
Lecture 1
Prof. Dr. T.Sadat-Shafai
Introduction to High Frequency
History
Heinrich Hertz generated EM waves at frequencies as high as 450 MHz.
Guglielmo Marconi Worked with radio frequencies as high as 1 GHz.
Need for radar during World war II promoted more research at high
frequency.
Randal and Boot developed radar system in 1940.
Development of high frequency devices such as Gunn diode for microwave
communications.
Integrated circuit is also used for fabrication of microwave devices.
Photonic crystals is also used as high frequency filters as well as optical
integrated circuits.
Frequency designation
C = f where c is the speed of light, f is the frequency and is the wavelength.
Very Low Frequency (VLF) up to 30 kHz, corresponding to wavelengths up 10km.
Low Frequency (LF), 30- 300 kHz, corresponding to 10-1 km wavelengths.
Medium Frequency (MF), 300 kHz-3MHz, corresponding to 1km-100m wavelength.
High Frequency (HF), 3MHz-30MHz, corresponding to 100m-10m wavelengths.
Very High Frequency (VHF), 30MHz- 300 MHz, corresponding to 10m-1m
wavelengths.
Ultra High Frequency (UHF), 300 MHz-3GHz, corresponding to 1m-10cm
wavelengths.
Super High Frequency (SHF), 3GHz-30GHz, corresponding to 10 cm-1cm
wavelengths.
Extremely High Frequency (EHF), 30 GHz-300GHz, corresponding to 1 cm-1 mm
wavelength.
Infra Red (IR), Greater than 300 GHz or less than 1mm Wavelength.
Introductory Circuit Theory
Electric Current: is defined as the rate of change of charge with time
Voltage: is the work done in moving a unit positive charge between two
points in a circuit.
Ohms Law:
where R is the resistance given by
Capacitance:
Capacitance depends on the geometry of the conductor and the permittivity of
the dielectric material.
dt
dq
i =
q
w
v =
iR v =
A
L
R =
dv
dq
C =
dt
dv
C
dt
dq
i = =
Geometrical Capacitance
Parallel plate Capacitor
Two wire transmission line
Coaxial transmission line
A
q
E
c c
o
= =
A
d q
d E v
ab
c
= =
d
A
v
q
C
ab
c
= =
a d
a
d
l
C >>
|
.
|
\
|
= For
ln
c t
|
.
|
\
|
=
a
b
l
C
ln
2 c t
Inductance: is defined as the ratio of magnetic flux to the current that is
surrounded or linked by that flux
for a time varying current, the voltage due to inductance is given by
Inductance also depends on the geometry of the conductors
For the two wire transmission line: the total inductance is given by
For the coaxial line: the total inductance is given by
i
L
|
=
dt
di
L v =
|
.
|
\
|
=
a
d l
L ln
t
|
.
|
\
|
=
a
b l
L ln
t
\
|
c
c
c
c
= V
c
c
= V V
E E
H E c c
( ) ( ) (14)
2
2
0 0 0 0 0
t t t t c
c
=
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
= V
c
c
= V V
H H
E H c c c
( ) ( ) ( ) (15) E E E V V V V = V V
0 = V E
( ) (16)
2
E E V = V V
Substituting equation (16) into equation (13) gives
Similar operation on magnetic field would yield
For uniform plane wave both electric and magnetic field have single component of E
and H field thus equations 17 and 18 may be rewritten as
The solution of equation 17 for a wave travelling in the z direction can be written in
the form
(17)
2
2
0 0
2
E E
t c
c
= V c
(18)
2
2
0 0
2
H H
t c
c
= V c
(21) s / 10 99792458 . 2
1
8
2
1
0 0
m =
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
c
c
(19)
2
2
0 0
2
2
t z c
c
=
c
c
x x
E E
c
(20)
2
2
0 0
2
2
t z c
c
=
c
c
y y
H H
c
( ) (22) cos
0
z t E E
x
| e =
An alternative expression for E
x
is given by
In the above expression E
0
is the magnitude of E
x
, e is the angular frequency and | is
given by
Similar expression can be written for H
y
as
Recalling equation 10
Differentiating equation 23 with respect to z and also differentiating equation 24 with
respect to t and substituting in equation 10 gives the relationship between E
x
and H
y
.
Z
i
is the intrinsic impedance for free space. For free space Z
i
= 376.7O. Intrinsic
impedance for dielectric medium is given by
(24)
2
t
c e | = =
( ) (23) exp
0
z t j E
x
| e = E
( ) (25) exp
0
z t j H
y
| e = H
(10)
0
t z c
c
=
c
c
y
x
H
E
(26)
0
0
i
y
x
Z = =
c
H
E
(27)
i
y
x
Z = =
c
H
E
Propagation through lossy material
The wave will attenuate as it travels. For the plane wave travelling in +z direction,
where is the propagation constant and given by
Substituting equation (29) into equation (28) gives
This indicates that the amplitude has decreased by a factor of
o is the attenuation constant and given by
( ) (28) exp
0
z t j E
x
e = E
(29) | o j + =
( ) ( ) (30) exp exp
0
z t j z E
x
| e o = E
) exp( z o
(31)
2
eo
o =
Power density
power density and the direction of energy flow for an electromagnetic wave is
given by the Poynting vector S.
The average Poynting vector is expressed as
For the plane wave the average Poynting vector is given by
( ) (32)
2
1
ave
H E S =
(31) H E S =
(33)
2
1
ave
H E S =
High Frequency Effects
At high frequencies certain effects become significant and must be considered.
Size of components decreases with decreasing wavelength.
As components become smaller, power dissipation and voltage breakdown become
problems.
At high frequency inductive reactance increases.
At high frequency capacitive reactance becomes small.
At high frequency power loss must be considered.
3 primary losses are Ohmic loss, Dielectric loss and Radiation loss.
Ohmic Loss
As the frequency goes up induced voltage increases which opposes the initial current hence
increasing the resistance
According to the above equation it appears as the cross-sectional area is reduced
Thus at high frequency, the current tends to flow near the surface of conductors. T his is called
Skin Effect. The skin depth is defined as the distance from the conductor surface to the point
where the current density has decreased by 1/e of its value at the surface.
f is the frequency, is the permeability, o is the conductivity.
Dielectric Loss
Dielectric materials have small conductivities, and there is very little current flow when an
electric field is applied. At high frequencies, motion of bound charges within the material
constitutes an ac current that causes heating and thus power loss
Radiation Loss
Radiation loss is energy radiated into space.
dt
di
L V =
A
L
R =
o t
o
f
1
=