Coal,oil sampling and their analysis.

For the determination of the various sizes of coal, as well as for the reduction purposes, sieves conforming to IS : 460-1962 shall be used. for sampling of coal from (a) conveyers, (b) wagons, (c) ships, (d) stock.piles and (e) seams.

TERMINOLOGY
Coal, Large - Goal with nominal size 15 to 5 cm, the upper limit not exceeding 23 cm. Coal, Run-of-Mine - Unscreened coal containing all sizes, mainly 23 to 0 cm. Coal, Small - Coal with nominal size 5 to 0 cm. Increment - The quantity of coal taken by a single operation of the sampling implement. Laboratory Sample - The quantity of coal obtained by reducing a gross sample ( JCC 2.5 ) by following a specified procedure for laboratory testing. Lot - The quantity of coal offered for disposal at one time

Coal
Why Coal Sampling ? Prices as per the gradation of coal So need of continuous monitoring of coal quality. Wide Variation in Coal qualities even from single source. Sample mechanically and manually. At a time amount of coal collected is called increment More the number of increments from different Places more will be the accuracy.

 Moisture Sample - A sample to be used exclusively for the purpose of determining total moisture. Sample Reduction -The process of crushing or grinding the sample to reduce the particle size and of mixing and sample-dividing in successive stages. Sub-lot - The quantity of coal in each of the groups into which ,a lot is divided for the purpose of sampling; a lot may consist of two or more sub-lots.

Division of coal

Sampling
division of a lot into a number of sub-lots depending upon the weight of the lot and then drawing a representative gross sample from each, of the sublots separately. The gross samples after suitable, reduction are to be tested individually Coal may be sampled when it is in motion, that is, from conveyers or during loading or unloading. IS : 437- 1956 Size grading of coal and coke for marketing ( revised ) IS : 1350-1959 Methods of test for coal and coke proximate analysis, total sulphur as calorific value

 IS : 1352-1959 Methods of test for coal and coke -special impurities IS : 1353-1959 Methods of test for coal carbonization caking index, swelling properties and gray-king assay ( L.T. ) coke types IS : 1354-1959 Methods of test for coke special tests IS : 1355-1959 Methods of test for ash of coal and coke

SAMPLING PROM CONVEYERS

Sub Lots -For the purpose of sampling, a lot, while it is being discharged over conveyer, shall be divided into a number of sub-lots of approximately equal weight as specified in Table

 A representative gross sample shall be drawn from each of the sub-lots and shall be kept separately. Thus, there will be as many gross samples as the number of sublots into which the lot has been divided. This number shall be evenly distributed over the sub-lot. The increments shall be drawn with the help of a suitable shovel at regular intervals. The material collected from all the increments in a sublot shall be mixed together and shall constitute a gross sample.

Sampling Procedure
ISI or mutually agreed agreement . For Each consignment of 250 Tons or more , one sample is recommended. Collect 350kg samples for 250 tons of coal received in increments of 7kg. C&Q C&Q 350kg 50kg of 1/8 2 kg (1/2) 1kg for gross moisture content (size ) other half crushed to 72 mesh size. For efficiency of plant , Samples of coal of individual boilers collected from hoppers.

SAMPLING FROM WAGONS DURING LOADING OR UNLOADING Sub-lots - For the purpose of sampling, all the wagons in a lot shall be divided into a suitable number of sub-lots of approximately equal weight. The objective of dividing a lot into a number of sub-lots is only to facilitate the drawing of a representative gross sample rather than to indicate its physical division. In order to get a representative gross sample, coal shall be sampled as far as possible in steady motion during loading or unloading of the wagons. A minimum of 25 percent of the wagons shall be selected at random from the sub-lot. The material collected from the selected wagons in a sub-lot shall constitute a gross sample.

 Samples of pulverized fuel to determine the fineness of coal pulverised to know mill efficiency & to ascertain the burner performance. Analysis of coal Samples Proximate Analysis Ultimate GCV Hardgrove grindability index ( HGI index) Fusion behaviour of ash of coal.

Ash Fusion Sample

reduce the gross sample in successive stages and take an additional 1 kg sample, passing 12.5 mm IS Sieve for the determination of ash fusion. If, however, it is desired still further to avoid any con-tamination whatsoever with iron, take separate quantities of about 5 kg of the coarsely broken coal ( 12.5 mm and below) for the test. Do not grind the sample further in iron &ills or vessels. Grind the ash obtained by incineration in an agate mortar to pass 75 micron IS Sieve.

Moisture Sample
mixing and crushing or grinding of coal leads to considerable loss of moisture and since it is usually necessary to know the moisture content of the original coal, collect, two or three special moisture sample as required, from the gross sample. Where the moisture samples have to be reduced it is preferable to use machinery which crushes rather than machinery which grinds.

Moisture
Total Moisture- The coal which has been exposed to contact with water in the seam or in a washery, or coal and coke wetted by rain, may carry free or visible water. This water plus the moisture within the material, is referred to as total moisture. Moisture in coal equilibrated at 60 percent relative humidity and 40C The moisture content of air-dried coal varies and depends upon the temperature and relative humidity of the air to which it is exposed. As such it is necessary to determine moisture content of different samples of coal under standard conditions. For this purpose, the coal is ground to pass 212-micron IS sieve and equilibrated in an atmosphere of 60 percent relative humidity and 40C.

Moisture in coal equilibrated at 96 percent relative humidity and 40 0C

Moisture in coal equilibrated at 96 percent relative humidity and 40C This is also termed as Near Saturation Moisture or Bed Moisture. It is exclusive of free or visible water and is determined after equilibrating coal in an atmosphere of 96 percent relative humidity and 40C. This is a measure of the moisture holding capacity of a coal. Free water or visible water is that quantity of water which is physically adhering to coal. In essence,this is that quantity of water which is in excess of the moisture holding capacity of a coal.

REDUCTION OF GROSS SAMPLES

GENERAL PREGAUTIONS The place set apart for the treatment of gross samples shall prefer-ably be enclosed, roofed over, cool and free from draughts. Where this is not possible, precautions shall be taken against (a) loss of fine wind-borne sample, (b) contamination with moisture, and (c) contamination with foreign matter. Select a hard and clean surface free of cracks for sample mixing,quartering and other operations. Do not let cinders, sand, chippings from the floor or any other foreign matter get into the sample.

CONING AND QUARTERING

The material which has been crushed to. 3.35 mm shall be heaped into the shape of a cone by pouring one scoopful of the material after another at the apex of the cone till the entire sample has been coned. The material shall be allowed to slide down the sides of the cone only under the influence of gravity. Flatten the cone evenly so that it forms a low circular pile. Cut the pile into four quarters along two diameters which intersect at right angles. Retain one pair of opposite quarters and reject the other. Repeat till the size of the retained sample is reduced to the required weight of 2 kg.

RIFFLING
The material which has been crushed to 3.35 mm shall be dropped uniformly in the _ riffle. One half shall be retained and the other half rejected. This procedure shall be repeated several times till 2 kg of material is obtained.

GRINDING (FINE SIZE)

In grinding the sample to pass 212-micron IS Sieve , it has been found that unnecessarily fine grincling is harmful. The ground coal should have the following approximate particle size distribution: Passing 212-micron IS Sieve and retained on 125-micron IS Sieve : 35 percent Passing 125-micron IS Sieve and retained on 63-micron IS Sieve : 30 to 35 percent Passing 63-micron IS Sieve : Remainder

Proximate analysis
The price of coal is based on UHV/GCV which is determined from the empirical formula using ash & moisture content of coal / by bomb calorimetric method Proximat analysis Moisture content Ash content VM FC Proximate analysis is done in equilibrated condition . The coal has characterstic to have different moisture under different temp & humidity conditions. So equilibrated at 400C and 60% RH for 48hrs. Equilibrated condition is called Air-dried Condition.

Moisture
Moisture - Inherent & external moisture. When a wet coal is exposed to atmosphere the external moisture evaporates. The inherent or Air dried moisture is related to the nature of coal . The I.M. content predicts the maturity of coal. 1g. sample for 1&1/2 hrs - at 108oC 2oC. Ash & Mineral Matter Inorganic minerals converted into ash by chemical reactions. Mineral matter -inherent and extraneous. Extraneous can be removed from coal by mechanical method i.e. Washing . Inherent cannot be separated by mechanical means.

Ash & VM
High Ash removing and Handling problems. Ash may restrict passage of air & lower the rate of combustion . So need of ash calculation to know the quality of coal . parr formula Mineral matter = 1.1 A ( A=% of ash in coal) V.M The flame size depends on V.M. content. Coals of V.low V.M. having good C.V are disadvantages. V.M is volatile substance present in coal and the gaseous products of thermal decomposition of coal .

VM
VM is measured at 900+/-20 0C for 7 minutes VM first catches fire, burns with flame and gives support in burning the char (FC) Normally V.M is 20-30% For low V.M coal oil support is given. Flame length increase with decrease in V.M. as char takes longer time for combustion. V.M also dictates the fineness required for proper combustion . Lower the V.M in coal, higher is the fineness required. For V.M 20-30% ,68-70% should pass through 200 If V.M <20% , 80% pass is required. Fixed carbon = 100-(Ash%+V.M%+Moist%)

Ultimate Analysis
Ultimate Analysis- To know the percentage of C,H,N,S,O coal is burnt in O2 Carbon and H2 are oxidised to CO2 and H2O. From the weight of CO2 &H2O, corresponding quantity of C&H present in sample can be calculated . S & N content by analytical methods. O2 content by difference. Carbon & H2 content of coal from proximate analysis C=0.97 F +0.70 (V-0.1A)-0.6 M H=0.036F +0.091 (V-0.1A)-0.05M F=fixed carbon V=Volatile matter A=Ash M= Moisture on Air dried

Carbon & H2 content of coal

Proximate Analysis M A V.M. FC By Ultimate Analysis C H By formula C H

0.9
1.0

23.8
25.5

18.3
14.3

57
59.2

65.03
64.14

3.64
3.13

65.89
65.05

3.46
3.15

1.2
0.9

13.8
32.8

18.1
12.5

66.9
53.8

75.98
58.14

4.09
2.96

75.88
58.10

3.87
2.73

 Ultimate analysis predicts whether coal is weathered (oxidised) or not. A weathered coal will be deficient in C&H but richer with O2 resulting in low calorific value. Proximate analysis may not show any wide difference between a normal coal & weathered coal. By ultimate analysis we can calculate the theoretical air for combustion. We can calculate gross & net C.V. Gives an idea of SOx and NOx. Dew point of the flue gas increases with increase in SO3 that means more sensitive heat loss. SO2/NO2/Cl2 etc. improve the performance of ESP by lowing Ash resistivity .

Calorific value
Calorific value - Quantity of heat evolved by its complete combustion. Calorific value is employed to find. Thermal efficiency of Combustor. Coal equivalent of any fuel for operation & commercial purposes. Useful heat value of coal, which has been accepted as an index of price fixation. 1g coal fired electrically at a P of 25 kg/cm2 O2 GCV can be calculated theoretically. For low moisture coal 1.8 GCV =165*FC +136*(V-1.1A)-108*M Kcal/kg For high Moisture coal 1.8* GCV=154*(100-1.1A-M)-108*M kcal/kg

Proximate Analysis
Proximate Analysis Moisture 5.9 5.7 5.4 Ash 24.7 36.6 19.4 5195 4215 5380 5370 4221 5473 Det_CV Cal_CV

Useful Heat Value( UHV)

An arbitary formula to calculate useful heat value Useful heat value (UHV)=8900-138 (A+M) kcal/kg A,M are Ash & moisture % at 60/40 If V.M<19 UHV=8900-138(A+M)-150(19-VM)Kcal/kg

Grades of coal
Grade A B C D E F G UHV(kcal/kg) >6200 5600-6200 4940-5600 4200-4940 3360-4200 2400-3360 1300-2400

HGI- Hardgrove Grindability Index

HGI- Hardgrove Grindability Index (HGI) HGI of Coal indicates its easiness towards pulverisation. It is also related to the power consumption for pulverisation of coal. The life and efficiency of coal mill depends on the HGI of coal. It measures the increase of surface produced by the application of standard amount of work and express the result as HGI, Which is between 20-100 for most coals. HGI=13+6.93 W W= g of coal passing through 200 mesh after 50g of coal of size 16-30 mesh are ground in a standard mill for 60 revolution.

 A high value of HGI indicates soft or easily grind able coal. The Av HGI of Indian coal for power station is 50-60 . HGI from proximate analysis HGI =105-R(1.16+0.002R)-0.4A A=Ash% R=VM+M Lower HGI means difficulty in pulverisation. Very high HGI not useful,it will produce fines from mines. Very high HGI with high V.M may catch fire.

Ash Fusion- Clinker formation

Ash Fusion - Fusion behaviour is due to mineral matter associated with coal. Depending upon the temp. of thermal environment the atmosphere (reducing or oxidising ) the time of heating & the composition of mineral matters of coal. final product may be Ash, partially fused mass / clinker or molten matter/ Slag. Leitz heating microscope - specimen in cylindrical shape ii reducing atmosphere. Initial deformation temp. Hemispherical temp. Flow temp. The major components of Ash are SiO2,Al2O3 & CaO Minor components MgO, TiO2,P2O5,Na2O

Oil
Mechanical machines need lubrication. No machines can run for long without lubrication of its moving parts. At best, the moving parts may wear out faster. At worst, entire machines can seize up and develop cracks. In severe conditions, the heat built up can even cause explosions and loss of lives. Lubricating oil can last for a very long time in normal machine operation. The key features of steam turbine oil are superior oxidation resistance, rust/corrosion protection and good water shedding properties. Because steam turbine oils routinely carry out their function in a 'wet' environment, it is vital that steam turbine oil additives have very good hydraulic stability (i.e. are not degraded by the presence of water).

Main tests of Lub Oil

Air release value Moisture Mechanical impurities Acidity (TAN) Demulsibility Foaming characteristics NAS Number Particle quantification & Ferrography Flash point Viscosity RPVOT

Onsite Checks
Color - Unusual and rapid darkening can indicate contamination or excessive degradation. Odor - Sour smelling oil can indicate contamination or excessive degradation. Air entrainment - Air bubbles in the body of the lube oil sample should clear within 15 minutes. Foam - After a vigorous shake, foam from the surface should clear within 10 minutes. Water - Turbine oil samples should be transparent. If you cannot read printing through a clear sample container, then water levels above 300 ppm may be present. A simple crackle test can also prove useful in determining if any free or emulsified water is present. Solids - Look for solids settling out as signs of external and internal contamination.

Air Release ASTM D3427

Turbine and system circulating oils, if exposed to heating, will absorb air and change their characteristics. They should on cooling release this air quickly and return to the original properties. The time for the air entrained during the test procedure to detrain to 0.2 percent by volume. This is typically not a problem for most ISO VG 32 turbine oils, but can be for ISO VG 46 oils, due to the higher viscosity. In turbines with small sumps and minimal residence time, entrained air mixtures can go to bearings and critical hydraulic control systems causing film strength failure problems, loss of system control, and an increased rate of oxidation. Air release of turbine oils should not vary with in-service time and therefore may not need to be tested for condition assessments routinely, unless a specific problem is suspected.

Air release..
The air release test is done by saturating the fluid (normally at 50 C., or any other temperature such as 25 C.) with air bubbles and then measuring the time it takes for the fluid to return to an air content of 0.2%. Air release times are generally longer for Group I base oils than for Group III base oils. Polyol ester, polyalphaolefin, and phosphate ester base oils typically have lower air release than conventional mineral oils. The maximum air release for hydraulic oils 5 minutes for ISO 32 oils, 7 minutes for ISO 46 oils, 17 minutes for ISO 150 oils. Air release values generally increase with viscosity of the base oil.Air release is mainly a function of the base stock, and oils need to be monitored for this

Demulsibility ASTM D1401

This test measures the ability of oils to separate from a water/oil emulsion. Oil and water under certain conditions will form an emulsion, which can have undesirable consequences. If it is allowed to stand, with no further mixing, the oil and water should separate, to enable the water to be removed. Demulsibility is affected by excessive water contamination or presence of polar contaminants and impurities. Demulsibility can be tested using ASTM D1401, in which a known volume of oil is mixed with water, and the time taken for the two to separate is measured in minutes; the faster the separation, the better the demulsibility. ASTM does not have warning limits for demulsibility although some turbine OEMs identify levels of 3 ml emulsion after 30 minutes on new oils. In-service oil warning limits of 15 ml or greater of emulsion after 30 minutes should serve as a warning limit.

Dem
The impact of demulsibility depends on the system residence time and anticipated levels of water contamination. Demulsibility testing can show failure in the lab, but with sufficient residence time, the turbine oil may shed water at an acceptable rate that does not impact turbine oil performance. Small sumps with lower residence times will require better demulsibility performance than larger sumps. Testing for demulsibility should be conducted on an annual basis, or if the lube oil system is exposed to water.

Test Method
A 40-ml sample of oil and 40 ml of distilled water are put into a 100-ml graduate cylinder. The mixture is stirred for 5 minutes while maintained at a temperature of 130 F. The time required for separation of the emulsion into its oil and water components is recorded. If, at the end of 30 minutes, 3 or more milliliters of emulsion still remain, the test is discontinued and the milliliters of oil, water, and emulsion are reported. The 3 measurements are presented in that order and are separated by hyphens. Test time, in minutes, is shown in parenthesis. The number of minutes to 3 ml emulsion at 54 degrees C. by ASTM D 1401-02 is preferably less than 30 minutes, more preferably less than <20 minutes.

flash point & fire point

The flash point is the temperature to which an oil has to be heated until sufficient flammable vapor is driven off so that it will flash when brought into contact with a flame. The fire point is the higher temperature at which the oil vapor will continue to burn when ignited.

Flash point
Flash point testing is done primarily to confirm product integrity from contamination. ASTM D4378-97 identifies a drop in 30F (17C) from the new oil flashpoint as a warning limit. Flash point testing is required only if product contamination from a different oil or solvent is suspected.

Viscosity
Viscosity is the most important characteristic of a turbine oil because the oil film thickness is critically dependent on the oils viscosity. Turbine blade clearances are critical to power plant efficiency and reliability. These blade clearances are directly impacted by lubricant viscosity. Changes in oil viscosity can result in unwanted rotor positioning, both axially and radially. Axial movements directly impact turbine blade efficiency and in extreme cases can lead to blade damage. Radial movements caused by changes in viscosity can result in oil whip, where the rotor does not settle into one radial position. For in-service turbine oils, the viscosity should remain consistent over years of service, unless the oil has become contaminated or severely oxidized. ASTM D4378-97 identifies a five percent change from the initial viscosity as a warning limit. Testing for viscosity should be conducted on a quarterly basis, at a minimum.

Viscocity Index
The Viscosity Index (VI) is an indication of the oils change in viscosity with a change in temperature. Most gas and steam turbine OEMs require a turbine oil with a VI of at least 90. The VI for turbine oils should not vary in-service, because turbine oils typically do not contain VI improvers and therefore do not need to be tested routinely. The higher the VI, the less a given lubricants viscosity will change with a subsequent change in temperature.

PPM & % relationship

10000 ppm = 1 % 1000 ppm = 0.1 % 100 ppm = 0.01 % 10 ppm = 0.001 % 1 ppm = 0.0001 % Water in the oil increases frictional resistance, causes the oil to break down prematurely, corrodes journals and any parts not continuously covered with oil, and may cause corrosion in the entire system.

Water by Karl Fischer Titration - ASTM D6304

Testing for water, is important because water is a precursor to oil oxidation and rust formation Excessive water will also alter an oils viscosity, which reduces its load-carrying capacity. water levels above 250 ppm in hydrogencooled generator windings may lead to stress corrosion cracking of generator rotor rings. Water in a turbine oil in warm storage tanks, where the oil is typically stagnant, can promote the spread of microbial growth that will foul system filters and small-diameter gauge and transducer line extensions. ASTM D4378-97 identifies 1000 ppm or 0.1 percent of water as a warning level, while some gas and steam turbine OEMs have identified 500 ppm. In hydrogen-cooled generators, an upper limit of 250 ppm should be maintained. Because free and emulsified water are the most harmful, it is advisable to keep water levels below saturation, typically 100 to 200 ppm depending on base oil types, additive formulation and age. Testing for water should be conducted on a quarterly basis, at a minimum using coulometric Karl Fischer Titration (ASTM D6304).

Rotating Pressure Vessel Oxidation Test (RPVOT) - ASTM D2272

was developed for the monitoring of in-service oils to warn of a loss in oxidation resistance. Oxidation is driven by heat and exposure to contaminants like water, entrained air and catalytic metals. As a turbine oil degrades, it forms weak organic acids and insoluble oxidation products. After a period of time, these oxidation by-products and carbon insolubles cause a significant change in critical clearances, and in some instances prevent the oil from providing adequate cooling to the bearings and fouling turbine control elements and heat exchangers. for identifying oxidation stability problems with in-service turbine oils. ASTM D4378-97 identifies an RPVOT drop to 25 percent of the new oil RPVOT value with a concurrent increase in Acid Number (AN) as a warning limit. the RPVOT test is designed to determine a lubricants suitability for continued use, not to compare competitive oils. Competitive oil comparisons should be evaluated on the basis of RPVOT longevity, rather then the absolute RPVOT value.

RPVOT
an oil that has reached its minimum allowable RPVOT values needs to be changed. However, as a short-term measure, the so-called bleed and feed method of turbine oil rejuvenation is suitable to extend the life of the turbine oil for a limited time. Efforts to readditize a severely oxidized turbine oil with oxidation inhibitor can put equipment at risk. An oil that has a RPVOT value below 100 minutes more than likely has diminished its inherent base stock oxidation stability, making readditizing a nonpractical solution. In such cases, readditization may temporarily boost the RPVOT value but given the diminished nature of the base stock may sharply reduce the time frame before heavy varnishes and sludges are formed. Without the use of special filters such as Fullers Earth, to strip all polar materials, contaminants and additives, followed by complete readditization, the rejuvenation of a degraded turbine oil is inadvisable.

Foaming characteristics - ASTM D4378-97

Large industrial turbines have a need to control foaming to ensure adequate lubrication and to protect the environment from spillages. Circulation oils usually have an additive to keep foaming under control. To determine if the additive is still functioning fully, a measured amount of air is blown at a constant rate into an oil at a specified temperature, the foam produced is measured and checked to see how long it takes to collapse. the volume of foam generated after blowing for 5 minutes at 75F (24C), defined as the residual foam left after a 10-minute settling period. A foam stability of less than 5 ml is a good indication that foam bubbles are breaking and the turbine should not experience foam operational problems. When addressing a foam problem, cleanliness, contamination or mechanical causes should be investigated before field defoamant readditization can be considered. Excessive readditization can result in an even greater problem with increased air entrainment. Dirt is a leading cause of foam, so cleanliness should be tested as a likely cause.

Foam ASTM D892

If the foam level in the turbine sump is six inches or less and does not overflow the sump or cause level-monitoring issues, then turbine oil foaming is not usually a major cause for concern, although a sudden increase in foaming may indicate a more serious problem. Lube oil at the turbine sump surface should show at least one clear area (no bubbles) and larger breaking bubbles should be seen at this interface.

PQ or particle quantifier
This test determines ferromagnetic debris in used oil samples and to screen samples for further analysis. This test measures the larger ferrous wear particles in the oil, by their effect on a magnetic field. It is more suited to particles greater than 10 microns. Together with ICP (which is optimised for particles sized < 5 microns) this can give more information on wear particle size profiles.

ISO 4406
Sudden breakdown in an oil system is often caused by large particles (>14 micron) in the oil while slower, progressive faults, e.g. wear and tear, are caused by the smaller particles (4-6 micron). That is why the particle reference sizes were set to 4 micron, 6 micron and 14 micron in ISO 4406/2000. A typical sample contains in every 100 ml of oil: 450,000 particles >4 micron 120,000 particles >6 micron 14,000 particles >14 micron Introduced in the ISO classification table this oil sample has a contamination class of 19/17/14.

Contamination guide for hydraulic and lube oil systems:

ISO 14/12/10 - NAS 4: Very clean oil, best for all oil systems. ISO 16/14/11 - NAS 5: Clean oil, an absolute necessity for servo & high pressure hydraulics. ISO 17/15/12 - NAS 6: Light contaminated oil, standard hydraulic and lube oil systems. ISO 19/17/14 - NAS 8: New oil, for medium to low pressure systems. ISO 22/20/17 - NAS 12: Very contaminated oil, not suitable for oil systems

Additives put into the lubrication oil

Anti Oxidant - Amines, Phenols Corrosion Inhibitor Detergent and Dispersant - Ca, Ba, Compounds, Soaps Alkalinity - Ca, Ba Hydroxides Anti Bacterial - Biocides Oiliness or Wetting Agents - fatty oils, chlorinated wax Extreme Pressure Agents - organic compounds of Cl, S, P (for hydraulic, gear oil) Pour Point Depressant - Organic polymers (alkyl naphthalene) (for steering gear, refrigerator) Anti foam - Silicones Viscosity Index Improvers - organic polymers Emulsifying Agent - Polar Compounds (emulsifying but do not lose lubricating property)

NAS 1638 Particle Count

The sample is pumped through a sensor, which counts and sizes the particles. A 100ml of sample is counted and the particles are grouped into various size ranges. The results are assessed against NAS 1638 to give ratings which determine the cleanliness of the fluid. Hydraulic systems are sensitive to the presence of solid particulate matter or 'dirt'. Dirt particles interact with moving surfaces that accelerate wear. If they are not removed or diluted, loss of operating efficiency and eventual breakdown is more likely. Sizing and counting of particulate contamination in hydraulic fluids are measured by a Particle Size Analyzer. Counts are recorded as particles per 100 ml in the ranges 5-15, 15-25, 25-50, 50100, 100+ microns. Limits are set by the manufacturers.

TAN -Total Acid Number

This test describes the measurement of the acidic constituents in oils and is reported in milligrams of potassium hydroxide per gram of sample. Oils degrade while in service, due to both acidic and basic oxidation. An increase in the acid number of a used oil is a measure of the amount of acidic substances absorbed. It is measured by determining the Total Acid Number (TAN) of the oil. The rate of change of the TAN is more important than its absolute value. A rapid increase may be caused by excessive degradation due to oxidation, hotspots from skidding bearings, carbon seals, dirty oil ways or by topup with a different oil.

Constituents of oils
The two basic categories of lube oil found in oil analysis applications are mineral and synthetic. Mineral oils are refined from naturally occurring petroleum, or crude oil. Synthetic oils are manufactured polyalphaolefins, which are hydrocarbon-based polyglycols or ester oils. Mineral oils are the most commonly used because the supply of crude oil has rendered them inexpensive; Another advantage of mineral-based lube oils is that they can be produced in a wide range of viscosities.

LOAD CARRYING ABILITY

The ability of a lubricant to maintain an effective lubricating film under high loads or pressures is a measure of its load carrying or extreme pressure (EP) characteristics. The load carrying ability of a lubricant may be enhanced by the addition of EP additives

NEUTRALIZATION NUMBER.
As petroleum products are subjected to elevated temperatures, the process of oxidation occurs. Oxidation leads to the formation of organic acids in the lubricant. This increase in acidity reduces the water-separating ability of certain oils, and may also prove corrosive to certain alloys. The neutralization number measures the amount of acidity present in the lubricant. It is quantitatively defined as the amount of potassium hydroxide (KOH) required to neutralize the acid present in one gram of sample. This quantity is also referred to as the Total Acid Number (TAN).

CLOUD POINT AND POUR POINT

Since petroleum stock consists of a mixture of molecular components, lubricants do not exhibit sharp freezing points. As a lubricant is cooled, certain components such as waxes will begin to precipitate out and become evident in the liquid as a cloud. The temperature at which this occurs is called the cloud point of the lubricant. If the product is further cooled, a point will be reached at which the lubricant will no longer flow or be efficiently pumped. The temperature at which this occurs is termed the pour point of the lubricant. Both properties are related to the wax content of the base stock. The pour points of high-wax lubricants may be depressed by the addition of pour point depressant additives. Pour point behavior becomes important in applications such as refrigerant compressor lubrication where the oil is subjected to low temperatures.

FLASH POINT AND FIRE POINT

As a lubricant is heated, lighter components begin to vaporize.The temperature at which sufficient vapor concentration exists above the surface of the lubricant so that ignition with a test flame is possible is called the flash point of the product. Flash point is useful for both product storage requirements and for the detection of contamination of one product with another. The fire point of a lubricant is that temperature at which sufficient vapors are present above the surface of the lubricant to sustain combustion upon ignition. This parameter is useful for storage and safety considerations.