ECH 3101 MATERIAL SCIENCE

ASSIGNMENT

Our selected material is PVC

Figure 1,2 &3 : PVC pipe

What is PVC?
Polyvinyl chloride, commonly abbreviated PVC, is the third-most widely produced plastic, after polyethylene and polypropylene It can be made softer and more flexible by the addition of plasticizers Roughly half of the world's polyvinyl chloride resin manufactured annually is used for producing pipes for municipal and industrial applications.

Structure of PVC

Figure 4 : Chemical Structure of PVC

Figure 5 : Molecular Structure of PVC

Raw Material
By thermal cracking of naphtha or natural gas, the basic petrochemical industry manufactures ethylene and propylene, etc. Naphtha is mainly supplied from the petroleum refinery industry, which uses crude oil as raw material. The chlor-alkali industry produces caustic soda, chlorine and hydrogen via electrolysis using industrial grade salt as main raw material.

At a first stage in the PVC production process ethylene and chlorine are combined to produce an intermediate product called ethylene dichloride; this is then transformed into vinyl chloride, the basic building block of polyvinyl chloride or PVC. The process of `polymerisation' links together the vinyl chloride molecules to form chains of PVC. The PVC produced in this way is in the form of a white powder. This is not used alone, but blended with other ingredients to give formulations for a wide range of products.

Most commodity plastics have carbon and hydrogen as their main component elements. PVC differs by containing chlorine (around 57 per cent by weight) as well as carbon and hydrogen. The presence of chlorine in the molecule makes PVC particularly versatile because it makes it compatible with a wide range of other materials. The chlorine content also helps to make PVC flame retardant. It can also be used as a `marker' to distinguish PVC in automatic sorting systems for plastics recycling. PVC formulations can be shaped by a variety of techniques and, using very little energy, made into the final product form. PVC polymer is chemically stable, neutral and non-toxic. PVC formulations have a wide range of applications including the most sensitive, such as medical equipment, plus construction, automotive and electrical cabling.

What is the type of failure?

Ductile

Creep

What is the type of failure?

Brittle

Fatigue

Fracture Surface Characteristics

Ductile
Cup and Cone
Dull surface Dimples

Brittle
Shiny
Cleavage fracture Flat

Fatigue
Striation Initiation site Propagation Zone

Creep
catastrophic rupture viscous-like deformation Vacancies dominate

Figure 6 : PVC cross-section

Figure 7 : side view of PVC

Figure 8 : Fracture surface

Figure 9 : Labeled fracture surface

Fracture Surface Characteristics

Ductile
Cup and Cone
Dull surface Dimples

Brittle
Shiny
Cleavage fracture Flat

Fatigue
Striation Initiation site Propagation Zone

Creep
catastrophic rupture viscous-like deformation Vacancies dominate

FATIGUE
A long-term failure Fatigue performance of PVC fittings and joints is much lower than that of the pipe itself Failures occurring under conditions of dynamic loading a material that is subjected to a repetitive stress will fail at a stress lower than that required to cause failure on a single load applied In short, the material fails even the stress limit is not exceeded

How the crack propagates?

How the crack propagates? (contd)

Overpressurization

Heat

Causes of failure in PVC

Over-bending

Vibration

Causes of failure (contd)

Over-pressurization
One of the most common causes of cracking and splitting in PVC pipes Each size and grade of PVC pipe is rated to a maximum fluid pressure Exceeding the maximum pressure will cause the pipe walls to fail.

Over-bending
While most forms of PVC pipe are far more flexible than their metal equivalents, they can begin to crack if bent too far This can happen with improper installation of the pipe

Vibration
PVC pipe can undergo material fatigue and cracking when exposed to significant vibration for an extended time This can happen when PVC pipe is rigidly joined to a pump or other vibrating piece of equipment.

Heat
When heated water or other fluid is sent through PVC pipe, it can significantly weaken the pipe walls

Raw material used to fabricate the PVC

Chlorinated polyvinylchloride

Polybutylene

Chlorinated polyvinylchloride (CPVC)

CPVC is widely used in water and sanitary systems for hot and cold water distribution

It offers much better resistance to corrosion

high tolerance to acids

It is fire resistant, though toxic fumes are emitted when it is burned.

CPVC is lightweight, non-toxic and odourless, and reduces growth of fungi, algae and bacteria.

It is designed to withstand continuous operating pressure of 600 kPa at a temperature of 95 C.

Polybutylene
It is a light, flexible material that is easy to handle and install.

It can be used in domestic dwellings for both hot and cold water supplies.

There are several jointing systems available for the connection of polybutylene pipework systems(electrofusion and socket fusion welding)

Some mechanical joints rely on an integral grab ring while others have a compression-type jointavailable in straight lengths up to 6 metres or coils 60 metres in length.

Measures that can be taken to prevent future incidents of this type of failure.

Cyclic Failures
Cyclic and surge failures are closely related in cause and outcome. When either is found in a system it is important to remove the cause as quickly as possible. Because water is almost not compressible, these pressure surges are sent throughout the pipes and fittings doing damage as they go. As the surge wave travels down the pipe line there are two chief conditions controlling its strength. The piping material and duration of the velocity change. The more rigid the pipe material, the higher the resultant pressure spike; but softer material requires more time to change the flow velocity.

With repeat pressure surges, or water hammer, cyclic fatigue is to be expected. It is not just the peak pressure or the frequency, but the combination of both that is the villain. Lets use a paper clip to explain cyclic fatigue. If you make repeated right angle bends, the number of cycles needed to break the wire will be significantly less than if bent just a few degrees. Also, if the wire is bent many times in a short period, it will break much quicker than if bent once a day. These two conditions, frequency and amplitude of the pressure surges, are critical to the life expectancy of a piping system. Frequent high surges will drastically increase cyclic fatigue in the system. Recommended design practice is to limit the sum of any surge pressure plus the working pressure to 100 percent of system pressure rating

Entrapped Air
The Springtime Startup procedure is equally essential. The refilling of a system that has been drained needs the full attention of the operator to prevent air slug and surge failures in the operation. Start by filling the system with the valve one-quarter opened, until all the air within the system has been displaced. Only after all the air has been removed should the valve be opened completely.

All air must be expelled from a piping system to prevent air slugs which cause pressure spikes. This is best done during the filling or refilling of a system. To lower the chance of getting air in a system it is important to fill slowly from the lowest possible elevation. The flow velocity during the filling process should not exceed 2 feet per second. Be sure to allow sufficient air venting at the highest possible elevation. The combination of slow filling and ample venting will keep the amount of entrapped air to a minimum.

Bending and Mechanical Loads

PVC is known for its ability to flex and bend more than metal piping. Although this is a blessing in most situations, it can also be a cause for failures. Thermal expansion and contraction of piping, which is not buried, must be controlled to reduce any mechanical loads on the piping and fittings. The incorporation of expansion loops and offsets in the system layout are generally used.

Exposure to Sunlight & UV ray

Over the years PVC has been used in a multitude of applications above ground while being continuously exposed to the elements including Ultraviolet radiation (UV). For many years there has been concern about the ability of PVC pipe and fittings to resist the degradation influence of this exposure. The PVC compounds used in todays pipe and fittings are much improved over those that were used decades ago. The present day formulations have improved stabilizers and UV inhibitors that resist UV breakdown that many earlier products experienced. Long exposure to UV does lead to some discoloration and chalking of the surface. This is a result of a breakdown of the molecular chain on the outermost surface. This thin surface skin in turn provides a UV shield to the PVC below, like Aluminum Oxide provides protection to the base Aluminum.
To prevent yellowing or discoloration of the pipe and fittings that are exposed to UV light you may wish to coat them with a heavily pigmented, water based exterior latex paint. Do not use a solvent or oil based paint! The color of the paint is of no particular importance, as the paint acts as an ultraviolet screen and prevents sunlight damage. White or other light color is recommended as it helps lower pipe temperature. The latex paint must be thickly applied as an opaque coating on any pipe and fittings that have been well cleaned. It is recommended to paint Gray or Schedule 80 pipe and fittings a light color to cut the absorption of solar radiation or heat into the system

Possible Effect on Environment

Hazardous byproducts are formed throughout the PVC lifecycle. At numerous points in the vinyl lifecycle, very large quantities of hazardous organochlorine by-products are formed accidentally and released into the environment.

Production: Formation of hazardous organochlorine byproducts begins with the production of chlorine gas. Extremely large quantities - on the order of one million tons per year -- of chlorine-rich hazardous wastes are generated in the synthesis of ethylene dichloride and vinyl chloride monomer (EDC and VCM, the feedstocks for PVC). Combustion: Still more by-products are created and released to the environment during the incineration of hazardous wastes from EDC and VCM production, the incineration of vinyl products in the waste stream, the recycling of vinylcontaining metal products by combustion, and the accidental burning of PVC in fires in buildings, warehouses, or landfills.

 By-products of PVC production are highly persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic. The chemical mixtures produced in the synthesis of EDC and VCM include such extremely hazardous and long-lived pollutants as the chlorinated dioxins (polychlorinated dibenzo-pdioxins), chlorinated furans (polychlorinated dibenzofurans), PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls), hexachlorobenzene (HCB), and octachlorostyrene (OCS). In addition, a very large portion of these mixtures consists of chemicals that have not yet been identified or tested. Many of the by-products of the vinyl lifecycle are of great concern, because of their persistent bioaccumulative toxicity

Persistence means that a substance resists natural degradation, builds up over time in the environment, and can be distributed globally on currents of wind and water. Many of the by-products of the PVC lifecycle are now ubiquitous global pollutants, which can be found not only in industrialized regions but in the planets most remote ecosystems. Absolutely every person on earth is now exposed to these substances. Bioaccumulation means that a substance is fat-soluble and therefore builds up in the tissues of living things. Most bioaccumulative substances, including many formed during the PVC lifecycle, magnify as they move up the food chain, reaching concentrations in species high on the food chain that are millions of times greater than their levels in the ambient environment. These substances also cross the placenta easily and concentrate in the breast milk of human and other mammals.

Toxicity. The feedstocks, additives, and by-products produced and released during the lifecycle of PVC have been shown to cause a range of health hazards, in some cases at extremely low doses, including:

Cancer Disruption of the endocrine system Reproductive impairment Impaired child development and birth defects Neurotoxicity (damage to the brain or its function), and Immune system suppression.

 Each group of students is to obtain an object/structure/component that has failed. It may come from your home, an automobile repair shop, a machine shop, and so on. Conduct an investigation to determine the cause and type of failure (i.e., simple fracture, fatigue, creep). Use photographic tools to analyse the type of failure. Identify the type of raw material used to fabricate that object. In addition, propose measures that can be taken to prevent future incidents of this type of failure. Proposed an advanced material that can be used to fabricate that component and describe the possible impact on the environment. Finally, submit a report that addresses these issues. Presentation will be conducted in Week 14.