Nervous Systems

Nervous Systems

Evolution of the Nervous System

Nerve Net
Cnidarian, Ctenophora

Nerve Ring with radial nerves

Echinodermata

Bilateral Nervous Systems

Cephalization (ganglia or brain) Nerve cord

Evolution of the Nervous System

Bilateral Nervous Systems
Ganglia and two or more longitudinal nerve cords
platyhelminthes, some mollusca

Ganglia (brain) and ventral nerve cord

annelida, arthropoda, some mollusca

Brain and dorsal nerve cord

chordata

Overview of a Nervous System

Overview of a Nervous System

Sensory Input
conduction of signals from sensory receptors PNS

Integration
environmental information is interpreted CNS (brain and spinal cord)

Motor Output
conduction of signals to effector cells PNS

Neurons

Neurons
Cell body
nucleus and organelles

Dendrites
short and branched toward cell body

Axons
long and unbranched away from cell body

Axons
Myelin Sheath - insulating layer Node of Ranvier - gaps between Schwann Cells Synaptic Terminals - neuron ending

Clusters of Neurons
Ganglion
Cluster of nerve cell bodies in the PNS

Nuclei
Cluster of cells in the brain

Supporting Cells
Glia (glue)
Astrocytes (structural support)
Creates tight junctions and forms the blood-brain barrier

Radial Glia
Form tracks for new neurons formed in the neural tube

Oligodendrocytes
Form myelin sheath in brain

Schwann Cells
Form myelin sheath in the PNS

Reflex
Sensory neuron to a motor neuron

Neural Signals
Membrane Potential Sodium-Potassium Pump

Threshold Potential

Resting State
Both sodium and potassium activation gates are closed Interior of cell is negative

Depolarization State
Sodium activation gates are opened on some channels Interior of cell becomes more positive

Rising Phase of Action Potential

Most sodium activation gates are opened Potassium activation gates are still closed

Falling Phase of Action Potential

Inactivation gates on sodium channels are closing Activation gates on potassium channels are opened interior of cell becomes more negative

Undershoot
Both gates to sodium channels are closed Potassium channels are closing Membrane returns to its resting state

Propagation of the Action Potential

Localized event First action potentials depolarization sets off second action potential Travels in one direction due to refractory period

Salatory Conduction
Action Potential jumps from node to node Speeds up signal from 5 m/sec to 150 m/sec

Communication Between Synapses

Electrical Synapses
gap junctions allow for direct transfer of action potential (used during escape responses)

Chemical Synapses
uses neurotransmitters

Chemical Synapse

Chemical Synapses
Action potential triggers an influx of calcium Synaptic vesicles fuse with presynaptic membrane Neurotransmitter released into synaptic cleft Neurotransmitters bind to receptors and open ion channels on postsynaptic membrane which sets off new action potential Neurotransmitters are degraded by enzymes or removed by a synaptic terminal

Neurotransmitters

Postsynaptic Potentials

Postsynaptic Potentials
Subthreshold
doesnt reach threshold

Temporal Summation
two signals do not reach threshold level but occur close enough to set off action potential

Spatial Summation
two signals are set off at the same time setting off an action potential

Spatial Summation with an inhibitor

doesnt reach threshold

Vertebrate Nervous System

Central Nervous System

Ventricles (4)
Cerebrospinal fluid

White Matter
Made up of axons

Gray Matter
Made up of dendrites

Peripheral Nervous System

Peripheral Nervous System

Autonomic Nervous System regulates the internal environment (usually involuntary) Somatic Nervous System regulates the external environment (usually voluntary)

Autonomic Nervous System

Autonomic Nervous System

Sympathetic Division
Flight or fight response

Parasympathetic Division
Rest or digest response

Brain

The Brainstem
The Medulla Oblongata and the Pons controls breathing, heart rate, digestion The Cerebellum controls coordination of movement and balance

The Midbrain
The Midbrain receives, integrates, and projects sensory information to the forebrain

The Diencepholon
Forebrain
Epithalamus
Includes the pineal gland and the choroid plexus

Thalamus
conducts information to specific areas of cerebrum

Hypothalamus
produces hormones and regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst, sexual response, circadian rhythms

The Telencepholon
Cerebrum
with cortex and corpus callosum
higher thinking

Cerebrum

Cerebrum

Cerebrum

Limbic System
Regulates emotions
Association with different situations is done mostly in the prefrontal lobe

Memory
Short Term
Done in the frontal lobe

Long Term
Frontal lobes interact with the hippocampus and the amygdala to consolidate

Sensory Receptors
Mechanoreceptors Pain Receptors Thermoreceptors Chemoreceptors Electromagnetic Receptors

Sensory Receptors
Mechanoreceptors Pain Receptors Thermoreceptors

Sensory Receptors
Chemoreceptors

Sensory Receptors
Electromagnetic receptors

Evolution of the Eye

Complex eyes have developed many times

Evolution of the Eye

All light-sensitive organs rely on photoreceptor systems employing a family of proteins called opsins. Further, the genetic toolkit for positioning eyes is common to all animals: the PAX6 gene controls where the eye develops in organisms ranging from mice to humans to fruit flies

Photoreceptors

Eye cups (ocelli) - light detection Genetic basis that started as a light detector 600 mya During the Cambrian explosion around 540 mya two types of eyes arose

Photoreceptors
Compound Eyes made up of ommatidia that helps detect movement

Photoreceptors
Camera Type Eyes Evolved several times
Hagfish eye Lamprey eye Jawed vertebrate eyes

Single Lens Eye

Sclera (white) Cornea (clear) Choroid (pigmented) Iris (color of eye) Retina (rods and cones) Pupil Fovea (focal point) Blind spot

Photoreceptors

Scars of Evolution 1. inside out retina that forces light to pass through the cell bodies and nerves before hitting the retina 2. blood vessels across the retina that cause shadows 3. nerve fibers that exit causing a blind spot

Focusing
Near vision
ciliary muscle contracted lens becomes more spherical

Distance vision
ciliary muscle relaxed lens becomes flatter

Visual Problems
Near-sightedness (myopia)
eyeball too long / focal point in front of fovea

Far-sightedness (hyperopia)
eyeball too short / focal point behind fovea

Astigmatism (blurred vision)

misshapen lens or cornea

Hearing and Equilibrium

Hearing Organ
Outer Ear
pinna and the auditory canal tympanic membrane

Middle Ear
malleus, incus and stapes oval window

Inner Ear
cochlea with the Organ of Corti
with a basilar membrane and hair cells

Eustachian Tube

Sound
Volume
amplitude of sound wave vibrates fluid in ear and bend hair cells which generates more action potentials

Pitch
frequency of sound wave

Equilibrium
Utricle and Saccule Semicircular Canals
used to detect body position and movement

Lateral Line System

Similar to inner ear detects movement of current, moving objects

Statocysts
Equilibrium contain statoliths

Sound Systems in Invertebrates

Body hairs that vibrate
mosquitoes

Tympanic Membranes
crickets

Chemoreception
Taste Buds
sweet (tip), salty (behind), sour (sides), bitter (back of tongue)

Chemoreception
Olfactory receptors cells
upper portion of nasal cavity

The Cost of Locomotion

The Cost of Locomotion

Locomotion must overcome two forces:
gravity friction

Swimming is more efficient than running

runner must overcome gravity

Larger animals travel more efficiently than smaller animals Flight is the most costly (per minute)

Skeletal Structures
Hydrostatic Skeleton
(cnidaria, ctenophora, platyhelminthes, nematoda, annelida)

Exoskeletons
mollusca, arthropoda

Endoskeletons
chordata

Cooperation of Muscles and Skeletons

Muscles always contract Muscles attached in antagonistic pairs

Skeletal Muscles
Muscles are made up of muscle fibers Fibers are made up of myofibrils Myofibrils are made up of myofilaments
thin filaments (actin) thick filaments (myosin)

Sliding Filament Model

Sacromeres (basic functioning unit)
Z lines (border of sacromeres) H zone (center of sacromere) I band (only thin filaments) A band (length of thick filaments)

Sliding Filament Model

During contraction, thin and thick filaments slide past each other
I band and H zone decreases in size

Caused by myosin head creating cross bridge with actin fiber and then moves by using ATP

Muscle Control
Tropomyosin blocks myosin binding sites Calcium ions allow cross bridges to form

Muscle Fibers
Fast Muscle Fibers
rapid, powerful contractions flight muscle

Slow Muscle Fibers

sustain, long contractions adductor muscles

Invertebrate Muscles
Flight muscles in insects are capable of independent contractions
wings beat faster than action potentials

Clam muscles contain paramyosin that allows them to remain contracted with little energy Nematodes only have longitudinal muscle that gives them their characteristic movements