Chapter 4 Learning

2 of 37

Topics to Explore

1. Classical Conditioning 2. Operant Conditioning

3. Motivation

Part 1 Classical Conditioning

4 of 37

Learning: Some Terms

Learning: Relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience Does NOT include temporary changes due to disease, injury, maturation, injury, or drugs, since these do NOT qualify as learning Reinforcement: Any event that changes the probability that a response will recur Response: Any identifiable behavior - Internal: Faster heartbeat - Observable: Eating, scratching

5 of 37

Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning: acquiring a new response (the conditioned response) to a previously neutral stimulus (the conditioned stimulus) that reliably signals the arrival of an unconditioned stimulus. Ivan Pavlov: Russian physiologist who initially was studying digestion; first identified mechanisms of classical conditioning Also known as Pavlovian or Respondent Conditioning

6 of 37

Pavlovs Experimental Setup

7 of 37

Some Terms
Reflex: a stimulus-response pair in which the stimulus automatically elicits the response Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): the stimulus in a reflex that automatically elicits a response Unconditioned response (UCR): the response in a reflex that occurs automatically after the occurrence of the unconditioned stimulus Example: physician strikes below knee with little hammer (unconditioned stimulus) knee jerk (unconditioned response)

8 of 37

Process of Classical Conditioning

Components of Classical Conditioning

9 of 37

Unconditioned stimulus: a stimulus that elicits a response without training Conditioned stimulus: A stimulus that elicits a response because it has been repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus Unconditioned response: An innate response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus; usually either a reflex or an emotional response

Conditioned response: Term used to refer to a reflex response after learning has occurred to elicit the response by a conditioned stimulus

10 of 37

More on Stimuli & Responses

There are two different stimuli:

the unconditioned stimulus, which elicits the response reflexively, without an training [the smell of food]
the conditioned stimulus, which can only elicit the response after training [the sound of the bell] There is only one response [salivation]. What the response is called depends on which stimulus elicited it: It is the unconditioned response when elicited by the unconditioned stimulus [the smell of food] It is the conditioned response when elicited by the conditioned stimulus [the sound of the bell]

11 of 37

Principles of Classical Conditioning

Acquisition: acquiring a new response to the conditioned stimulus Extinction: the diminishing of the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus no longer follows the conditioned stimulus Spontaneous Recovery: a partial recovery in strength of the conditioned response following a break during extinction training

12 of 37

Graphic: Acquisition & Extinction

13 of 37

Principles, continued
Stimulus Generalization: A tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar, but not identical, to a conditioned stimulus (e.g., responding to a buzzer or a hammer banging when the conditioning stimulus was a bell)

Stimulus Discrimination: The ability to respond differently to various stimuli (e.g., Rudy will respond differently to various bells [alarms, school, timer])

14 of 37

Classical Conditioning in Humans

Phobia: Intense, unrealistic, irrational fear of a specific situation or object (e.g., arachnophobia (fear of spiders; see the movie!)) Conditioned Emotional Response (CER): Learned emotional reaction to a previously neutral stimulus

Desensitization: Exposing phobic people gradually to feared stimuli while they stay calm and relaxed

15 of 37

A Little Demonstration

See in class!

Part 2 Operant Conditioning

Operant Conditioning (Instrumental Learning)

17 of 37

Operant Conditioning: Learning based on the consequences of responding; we associate responses with their consequences Operant Reinforcer: Any event that follows a response and changes its likelihood of recurring

18 of 37

Example of Operant Conditioning

Child says doll, duh, dat to get doll. On Day 1, parents give doll only when child says doll By Day 20, child only says doll to get doll

19 of 37

Graphic: Acquisition of Learning

Skinner Box (conditioning chamber)

20 of 37

Apparatus designed to study operant conditioning in animals

21 of 37

Timing of Reinforcement
Operant reinforcement most effective when given immediately after a correct response Effectiveness of reinforcement is inversely related to time elapsed after correct response occurs

Graphic: Effect of Delay of Reinforcement

22 of 37

23 of 37

Types of Reinforcement
Reinforcer: a stimulus that increases the probability of a prior response. Reinforcement: process by which the probability of a response is increased by the occurrence of a reinforcer.

Punisher: a stimulus that decreases the probability of a prior response.

Punishment: the process by which the probability of a response is decreased by the occurrence of a punisher.

24 of 37

Types of Stimuli
Appetitive stimulus: a stimulus that is pleasant Aversive stimulus: a stimulus that is unpleasant Positive reinforcement: reinforcement in which an appetitive stimulus is presented.

Positive punishment: punishment in which an aversive stimulus is presented

Negative reinforcement: reinforcement in which an aversive stimulus is removed Negative punishment: reinforcement in which an appetitive stimulus is removed

25 of 37

Types of Conditioning
consequence:

desirable (appetitive)

undesirable (aversive)

given

positive reinforcement

positive punishment

taken away

negative punishment

negative reinforcement

yellow increases behavior; blue decreases behavior

Comparison: Classical & Operant Conditioning

26 of 37

Comparison: Classical & Operant Conditioning, 2

classical operant

27 of 37

behavior

involuntary (reflexive)

voluntary (nonreflexive)

association

of events (CS & UCS)

of response & reinforcer

expectation

that CS signals arrival of UCS

that behavior will be reinforced

28 of 37

Types of Reinforcers
Primary Reinforcer: Unlearned and natural; satisfies biological needs (e.g., food, water, sex)
Secondary Reinforcer: Learned reinforcer (e.g., money, grades, approval, praise) Token Reinforcer: Tangible secondary reinforcer (e.g., money, gold stars, poker chips) Social Reinforcer: Provided by other people (e.g., learned desires for attention and approval)

29 of 37

Effectiveness of Token Economy

Tokens used to reward socially desirable behavior in a mental hospital ward. Tokens could be used for snacks, coffee, gameroom privileges, weekend passes.

Continuous & Partial Reinforcement

30 of 37

Continuous Reinforcement: A reinforcer follows every correct response

Partial Reinforcement: Reinforcers do NOT follow every response Partial Reinforcement Effect: Responses acquired with partial reinforcement are very resistant to extinction

31 of 37

Review: Types of Reinforcers

Part 3 Motivation

33 of 37

Drive Reduction Theory

Motivation: the set of internal and external factors that energize our behavior and direct it toward goals Drive reduction theory: a theory of motivation that proposes that our behavior is motivated to reduce drives (bodily tension states) created by unsatisfied bodily needs to return the body to a balanced state Need vs. Drive:
You begin a fast: after 1 day after 1 week

need for food

drive for food (hunger)

some need
some hunger

need increases
hunger decreases

34 of 37

Incentive & Arousal Theories

Incentive theory: a theory of motivation that proposes that our behavior is motivated by incentives, external stimuli that we have learned to associate with reinforcement. Arousal theory: a theory of motivation that proposes that our behavior is motivated to maintain an optimal level of physiological arousal.

35 of 37

Yerkes-Dodson Law
Yerkes-Dodson law: a law describing the relationship between the amount of arousal and the performance quality on a task

36 of 37

Intrinsic & Extrinsic Motivation

Extrinsic motivation: the desire to perform a behavior for external reinforcement Intrinsic motivation: the desire to perform a behavior for its own sake

A Little Demonstration: Sensation Seeking Scale

37 of 37

See in class!

THE END!