• Exam 1 is Tuesday Sept 15th

– 40 MC questions
– Same room and time as lecture
– You must have student ID and pencils
– Do not bring a scantron
• Office hours from now until exam:
– Tues Sept 8th 10:30-11:30
– Wed Sept 9th 8:00-9:00 and 1:30-2:30
– Thurs Sept 10th 8:00-9:00 and 10:30-11:30
– Mon Sept 14th 8:00-9:00 and 1:30-2:30
– Tues Sept 15th 8:00-9:00
Bacterial Cell Surface
Structures
 Pili & Fimbriae
• Bacteria may have 1, both, or neither
• Fimbriae:
– Non-motile extensions that help bacteria attach to
surfaces and to other bacteria (Neisseria, biofilms)
– Shorter than flagella, may have 100’s per cell
• Pili:
– aka- conjugation pili
– Hollow, non-motile tubes made of protein called pilin
that connect some cells.
– Longer than fimbriae, shorter than flagella; may
have 1-10 per cell
– Used to move DNA from 1 cell to another by
conjugation
E. coli
 capsule/slime layer/
glycocalyx
• Sticky polysaccharide
or polypepetide layer S. mutans

surrounding cell
• Protects cell from:
– phagocytosis
– desiccation
• Help cells attach to
objects such as teeth
S. pneumoniae
 Cell Motility
• Flagella
– Long, helical protein filaments
– Attached at ends, or over whole cell
- Flagella rotate to propel cell
Proton passage drives
rotation
- Clockwise or
counterclockwise
Bacterial flagella rotate;
Eukaryotic flagella- whip-like motion
http://video.google.com/videoplay
 Arrangement of Flagella
• Monotrichous- single flagellum at 1 end
• Lophotrichous- several flagella at 1 or both
ends
• Peritrichous- several flagella all around cell
• Amphitrichous- 1 on each end

peritrichous
monotrichous

lophotrichous
 lophotrichous
monotrichous

amphitrichous
peritrichous
 Structure of the flagella
3 parts:
1. Basal body
2. Hook
3. Filament
• Basal Body
– Imbedded within cell envelope
– Made of 2 or 4 protein rings connected by a
central rod
• C ring- in G+ & G-
• MS ring- in G+ & G-
• P ring- in G- only
• L ring- in G- only

L ring outer
membrane
P ring peptidoglycan

MS ring cytoplasmic MS ring

membrane
C ring C ring

Gram-negative Bacterium Gram-positive Bacterium

• C ring- In cytoplasm. Attached to inner
surface of cytoplasmic membrane
• MS ring- In cytoplasmic membrane. End
of central rod is attached to MS ring.
• P ring- In peptidoglycan layer
• L ring- In LPS layer

L ring outer
membrane
P ring peptidoglycan

MS ring cytoplasmic MS ring

membrane
C ring C ring

Gram-negative Bacterium Gram-positive Bacterium

• Hook
– Curved structure
made of protein;
connects filament to
basal body

• Filament
– Long, rigid, helical
structures made of
protein called flagellin
•Prokaryotes such as filamentous
cyanobacteria, Myxococcus, Cytophaga &
Flavobacterium move by gliding motility
instead of flagella.
•Gliding can occur from slime secretion that
moves cell along solid surface.
 cyanobacterium Oscillatoria

Flavobacterium
Motile bacteria can respond to chemical &
physical gradients in environment by moving
toward or away from the signal molecule.
•Directed movements toward or away from a
chemical or physical signal are known as
taxes.
•Chemotaxis – directed movement of
organisms in response to chemical signals.
•Phototaxis – directed movement of
organisms in response to light.
•Aerotaxis – directed movement of organisms
in response to oxygen.
•Osmotaxis - directed movement of
organisms in response to ionic strength.
 Demonstration of chemotaxis

Attractant
Initial insertion of capillary

Neither attractant nor repellent Repellent

 0 hr

2 hr

Phototrophic bacterium Rhodospirillum

moving toward light
• Attractants cause counterclockwise
rotation
– Flagella bundle together
– Push cell forward
• “Run”
• Repellents cause clockwise rotation
– Flagella fly apart
• “Tumble” = change of direction
• Runs + tumbles cause “random walk”
– Receptors detect attractant
concentrations
• Sugars, amino acids
– Attractant concentration increases
and prolongs run
• Net movement of bacteria toward
attractants
 Chapter 4
Bacterial Culture, Growth, and
Development
 Microbial Nutrition
• All life requires:
– Electron flow, to drive all life processes
• Drives ions into, out of cells
• Used to create ATP
– Energy, to move
electrons
– Materials, to
make cell
parts
• Nutrients- CHONPS
• Electron flow requires:
– Source of electrons
• Lithotrophs-
– Inorganic molecules are electron donors
(iron)
• Organotrophs-
– Organic molecules are electron donors
(glucose)
– Ultimate electron acceptor
• Inorganic molecules (nitrate or oxygen)
– Respiration
• Organic molecules (pyruvate)
– Fermentation
• Source of energy
– Phototrophs
• Light energy excites electrons
• Excited molecules are electron donors
– Chemotrophs
• Chemicals are electron donors
• Oxidation of chemical
– Oxidation = donation of electrons
• Nutrients
– Macronutrients
• Major elements in cell macromolecules
–C, H, O, N, P, S
• Ions necessary for protein function
–Mg2+, Ca2+, Fe2+, K+
– Micronutrients
• trace elements (Co, Cu, Zn, etc)
• growth factors (organic compounds)
necessary for enzyme function
• Carbon- large amount needed by cells to
form organic compounds (amino acids,
fatty acids, sugars, & nitrogenase bases)
to carry out cellular functions.
• Autotrophs- prokaryotes that can make
all cellular structures from CO2.
• Heterotrophs- must obtain carbon from
organic compounds. (most prokaryotes)
• Nitrogen- needed by cells for amino acids,
nitrogen bases, & several other cell
constituents.
• Nitrogen-fixing prokaryotes- capable of
using atmospheric nitrogen gas.
• Most prokaryotes obtain nitrogen from
compounds such as ammonia & nitrate.
Energy sources: Carbon sources:
Chemoorganotrophs Heterotrophs - carbon
-energy from oxidation source is organic carbon
(removing electrons) of compounds
organic compounds Autotrophs - carbon
Chemolithotrophs – source is carbon dioxide
energy from oxidation These terms can be
of inorganic compounds. combined to more
Only in prokaryotes. completely describe an
Advantage? organism.
Phototrophs - contain • Example-
pigments that allow photoautotroph obtains
them to use light as an energy from light &
energy source. carbon from carbon
Advantage? dioxide.
 Nutrient Uptake
• Passive diffusion
– Some substances pass freely
through membranes
• O2, CO2
– Follows gradient of material
• Facilitated diffusion
– Transporters pass material
into/out of cell
– Follows gradient of material
 Nutrient Uptake—Active Transport
• ABC Transporters
– Use ATP energy to pass
material into cell
– Transport material against
gradient
• Symport and Antiport
– Gradient of one molecule transports
another
– Transports material against its gradient

Symport: Gradient Antiport: Gradient

of pumps in of pumps in
same direction opposite direction
Phosphotransferase
System (PTS)
Uses ATP energy to pass
material into cell

glucose enters cell and is phosphorylated. As

a result, gradient of pushes more glucose
inside.
(glucose-6-phosphate) cannot pass out of cell.
Nutrient Uptake—Active Transport
Phosphotransferase
System (PTS)
Uses ATP energy to pass
material into cell
Modifies material as it
enters cell

glucose enters cell and is phosphorylated. As

a result, gradient of pushes more glucose
inside.
(glucose-6-phosphate) cannot pass out of cell.
 Culturing Bacteria
• Culture media-all materials necessary for
growth
– Varies for different bacterial species
– Electron source
– Energy source
• If not phototrophic
– Carbon source
• If not autotrophic
– Nitrogen source
• If not N2-fixer
 Obtaining Pure Cultures
• Dilution streaking
– Streak cells on plate
– All cells in colony derive
from single cell
• Genetically identical
• Dilution in liquid culture
– Reduces number of
cells in each tube
– Spread liquid on plate
to see single colonies
 Counting Bacteria
Total Counts/Direct counts
• Petroff-Hauser counting chamber
– viewed under microscope & cells in grids
are counted
– Counts cells directly
• Can be done electronically using Coulter
Counter
• Can’t tell if cells are alive or dead
– Can use special stains to distinguish living
cells
Spectrophotometer/Turbidity measurements
• Measures optical density
• indirect but rapid
• a suspension of cells looks turbid
(cloudy); cells scatter light passing
through suspension
• more cells, more turbid, more light is scattered
• can’t tell if cells are alive or dead

light Photodetector
bulb
• For turbidity measurements to be
substituted for direct counting methods a
standard curve must be made.
• Once a standard curve is made for a specific
organism growing in a specific culture
medium, it can be used for future cultures of
the same organism in the same medium to
estimate cell numbers.
Viable counts
• In many cases, you don’t want to count dead
cells, so viable count methods let you count
only live cells.
– Counts only cells able to reproduce
• Form colonies
– Requires time to form colonies
(overnight)
• Concentration of bacteria in a sample is
unknown.
• Before spread plates or pour plates are done,
dilution of sample is necessary.
• Why study microbial growth?
• to understand science of microbial growth
• practical situations which call for control of
microbial growth:
– Food industry, health care industry, etc
• When 1 cell divides to form 2 cells, one
generation has occurred.
• Generation time- time for # of cells in a
culture to double.
• Many bacteria have generation time of 1-3
hours. Some as little as 10 minutes, some
can be days.
• Generation time is affected by nutritional &
genetic factors.
• Under ideal conditions, one generation in
Escherichia coli takes 20 minutes.
• Also called doubling time because with
each generation the cell population doubles
• Generation time in lab is usually shorter
than in nature. Why?
• constant ideal conditions for lab
cultures; natural populations rarely have
ideal conditions
• http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-
•exponential growth-
characteristic type of growth
pattern of microbial populations
where the number of cells doubles
over a regular time interval
•Exponential growth can be represented on
a semilogarithmic graph
•These graphs are useful for estimating
generation times
 Graphical determination of generation time
• Number of cells/ml is plotted vs time on
semi-log paper
• Semi-log paper- linear scale on X-axis &
logarithmic scale on Y-axis
• Generation time is found by determining the
time it takes the # of cells to double
•Each cycle on the Y-axis
represents a power of 10
Example:
•bottom 1 might represent 106
cells/ml, then next 1 would
represent 107
•Or bottom 1 might represent
0.001 and next 1 would
represent 0.01
•Depends on the data you
have
•Important to label the axes
•Can plot # of cells or optical
density/absorbance
(turbidity)
Use the following
data to plot
growth
curves and
calculate
generation time
graphically

X-axis- time
Y-axis- # of cells
 absorbance Time
Cells/ml Time
1.5 x 106 0 .003 0
1.5 x 106 1 .003 1
1.5 x 106 2 .004 2
2.0 x 106 3 .008 3
4.5 x 106 4 .014 4
1.3 x 107 5 .033 5
4.5 x 107 6 .085 6
2.2 x 108 7 .180 7
1.0 x 109 8 .410 8
2.8 x 109 9 1.20 9
4.5 x 109 10 3.00 10
5.5 x 109 11 5.00 11
6.2 x 109 12 8.00 12
7.0 x 109 13 9.00 13
8.0 x 109 14 9.00 14
Generation time
is ~ 30 minutes
Generation time
is ~ 42 minutes
 The Growth Cycle
Populations of
microorganisms
show a
characteristic
growth pattern
when inoculated
into a fresh
culture medium
Log scale necessary to show wide range of concentrations
 Phases of Growth
• Lag phase
• Exponential
(logarithmic) phase
• Stationary phase
• Death phase

Growth curve = graph of

# of cells vs time
 Lag phase
• cells are transferred to a new medium,
delay before cells divide
• No increase in cell #
• Adjustment period (cells are making
everything they need to grow in the new
medium)
 Exponential growth phase
• Also called logarithmic (or log) phase
• Increase in cells is geometric
– 1 cell will become 2, then 4, then 8, then 16, etc.
• Shortest generation time – time it takes for
number of cells in a culture to double
 Stationary phase
• key nutrient will run out or toxic waste
product will build up
• Most cells survive but stop dividing
 Death phase
• Nutrients run out & waste products build up-
cells can no longer survive
• Cells die & then may lyse (break apart)
Batch culture vs continuous culture/chemostat
Batch culture-
• Constant volume of culture medium; closed
system- nothing added or removed; commonly
used in lab
• What happens to medium when organisms are
growing in it? How does it change over time?
• continually altered by metabolic activities of
organisms growing in it; nutrients depleted;
wastes build up
Continuous culture-
•Fresh medium constantly added, used medium
constantly removed, nutrient concentration stays
same
Continuous culture-
•Fresh medium constantly added, used medium
constantly removed, nutrient concentration stays
same
•Chemostat- continuous culture device; allows cell
populations to remain in exponential growth for long
periods
Last, First blank • In last column of “name”
field on back of scantron,
lab section
bubble in your section
number.
• Leave the next to last
column in “name” field
blank.
Section Lab time Letter to
bubble in
1 7:40 A
2 9:10 B
3 10:40 C
LSU ID# 4 12:10 D
5 1:40 E
6 3:00 F
7 4:30 G
Do not touch
 Cell Differentiation
Cells respond to changing environment
• Endospores
– Form inside (“endo”) mother cell
• Dormant survival structure formed by some
species of Gram + rod-shaped bacteria
during harsh conditions.
• Ex. Bacillus & Clostridium
• Resistant to heat, radiation, drying, acids,
etc.
• Can survive indefinitely.
Vegetative cell

Sporosarcina

endospore
 sporulation
• Sporulation- formation
of an endospore when
enviromental conditions
are not favorable.
• Germination- formation
of a vegetative cell
from an endospore
when conditions are
favorable.
 vegetative growth

nutrient starvation
germination
sporulation

sporangium with
free endospore endospore

sporangium
is degraded
 Endospore intracellular location
Terminal Subterminal Central

Endospore
inside cell
 Structure of endospores
• Core- center of endospore. Contains cell wall,
CM, cytoplasm & nucleoid.
• Cortex- surrounds core. Made of loosely
cross-linked peptidoglycan.
• Spore coat- protein which covers cortex.
• Exosporium- thin layer of protein which
covers the spore coat
• Calcium–diplicolinic acid helps dehydrate
endospore, stabilizes DNA & protects it
from heat denaturation.
• Small acid-soluble proteins protect DNA
from UV radiation, desiccation, dry heat &
also serve as carbon & energy source during
germination.
 Cell Differentiation
Heterocysts
 Differentcells produce
different nutrients
 Cell Differentiation
Heterocysts
 Differentcells produce
different nutrients
Vegetative cells—
energy
Heterocysts—fix N
2
Myxospores
 Form
inside fruiting body
Multicellular structure
– Actinomycetes form
spores
• Food runs out
• Produce aerial hyphae
• Disseminates cells

Streptomyces
 Chapter 5
Environmental Influences and
Control of Microbial Growth
Environmental factors that affect
microbial growth
• Temperature
• Pressure
• Osmolarity
• pH
• Oxygen
Temperature
• Temperature is a major environmental
factor controlling microbial growth.
• cardinal temperatures- minimum, optimum,
& maximum temperatures for an organism
• minimum temperature - cellular processes
slow; cytoplasmic membranes stiffen
• maximum temperature- proteins start to
denature
• optimum temperature- organism grows
best; between min & max
•Microorganisms can be grouped by the
temperature ranges they require.
• Psychrophiles
–Cold: O°C–20°C
• Mesophiles
–20°C–45°C
• Thermophiles
–40°C–80°C
• Extreme thermophiles
–65°C–113°C
• Psychrophiles-
found in constantly
cold environments

• Example:
Chlamydomonas-
“snow algae”
pink snow algae
Chlamydomonas
Molecular adaptations of psychrophiles:
• Membranes have high content of
unsaturated fatty acids - semi-fluid at low
temperatures
• Proteins are more flexible compared to
mesophiles or thermophiles
• Cryoprotectants can be used to preserve
microbial cultures at low temps
• 10% DMSO (Dimethylsulfoxide) &
10% glycerol are commonly used in
laboratories to preserve microbial cultures
for long time in freezers.
• Mesophiles- midrange optimum
temperature
• Found in warm-blooded animals & many
terrestrial & aquatic environments.
• Examples- most organisms you are familiar
with such as Escherichia coli (found in the
human intestine).
• Thermophiles
– Optimum temp above 40°C
– Some Archaea have been found growing at
temps above 110 °C
Morning glory pool in Yellowstone
Places thermophiles are found:
• soils subjected to full sunlight
• fermenting materials (compost piles)
• hot springs
– Thermus aquaticus is a common hot
spring thermophile. The heat stable
DNA polymerase from this bacterium is
mass produced and used in laboratories
to replicate DNA in a test tube.
Grand prismatic spring in Yellowstone
• http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=67
Molecular adaptations of thermophiles:
• Membranes have a high content of
saturated fatty acids – stable &
functional at high temperatures
• Enzymes are heat stable- proteins are
more rigid compared to mesophiles or
psychrophiles
• Heat shock response
– Occurs at high end of temperature range
– “Emergency” proteins produced
– Help keep proteins from denaturing
– Induced by many stressful conditions
• Heat
• High salt concentrations
• Arid conditions
 Pressure
• Barophiles
– Adapted to high pressures
• Up to 1,000 atm
• Barotolerant organisms
– Grow at high, but not very high
pressure
• Barosensitive organisms
– Die at high pressure
• Most “typical” bacteria, all mammals
Osmolarity
• Water moves from areas of high water
concentration to areas of lower water
concentration.

• Water moves from areas of low solute

concentration to areas of high solute
concentration.

• The diffusion of water is called osmosis.

 H2O
H2O

In a hypotonic In a hypertonic
environment environment
water will move water will move out
into a cell. of a cell & the cell will
die from plasmolysis.
• In a hypotonic environment the cell wall of
most prokaryotes prevents too much water
from entering cells even if equilibrium is
never reached.
•Isotonic – equal amount of solutes/water
on inside & outside of cells
• However, there is no physical barrier that
prevents cell from losing too much water if
cell is in hypertonic environment.
• Some cells can increase solute
concentration in cell to prevent too much
water loss by:
1. pumping inorganic ions (K+) into the cell;
2. making or concentrating an organic
solute (glycerol) in the cell.
• Osmophile- organism that grows in high
solute concentrations (hypertonic
environments)
• Halophiles-grow best in high salt habitats
– Vibrio lives in ocean; % salt in ocean?
• Extreme halophiles require high levels (15%
to 30%) of salts for growth.
– Halobacterium salinarium (requires 25%
salt) lives in very salty lakes
• Halotolerant- can survive at higher salt
concentrations but grow best in absence of salt
– Staphylococcus
Halobacterium
salinarium
• End of exam 1 material!
• The rest of Ch 5 will be covered on exam 2.
• Exam 2 material begins here
• Chapter 5 continued
pH
• pH- relative hydrogen ion concentration in
a solution
• Scale is from 0 to 14
• 7 is neutral, < 7 is acidic, > 7 is basic
• Most bacteria grow at pH of 6-8
• Bacteria can be found to exist at almost
any pH
• Most cells internal pH remains near 7
regardless of pH of their environment
Sulfur oxidizing Bacteria
and Archaea
Iron oxidizing Bacteria
Acetic acid Bacteria

Lactic acid Bacteria

Human intestinal flora

cyanobacteria

Archaea extreme halophiles

• Most organisms have a pH range at which
they can grow of 2-3 pH units.
• Acidity or alkalinity of an environment can
greatly affect microbial growth
• Weak acids can pass through membranes
– Good food preservatives
 Classification based on optimal pH
• Some organisms have evolved to grow best at
low or high pH, but most organisms grow
best between pH 6 & 8 & are called
neutralophiles (neutrophiles).
Acidophiles- grow best at low pH
• Stability of CM is critical since increases in
pH can cause lysis
• Ex. Many fungi, Thiobacillus produces
sulfuric acid, volcanic thermal soil archaea
Picrophilus oshimae grows optimally at pH
0.7
Sulfolobus- thermophilic
and acidophilic
 The pH Scale

0 7 14

Most bacteria and protozoa

Most fungi
Alkaliphiles- grow best at high pH
• found in soda lakes & high carbonate soil
• Many species of Bacillus live in very alkaline
soils
• Bacillus firmus has a pH range of 7.5-11.
• Proteases & lipases made by alkaliphiles are
mass produced & used in household
detergents.
AKA:
Alkalophiles
Alkalinophile,
Basophile
cyanobacterium Spirulina- alkaliphile
 Oxygen
• Microorganisms vary in their need or
tolerance of oxygen (O2) & can be
grouped based on their requirements for
O2.
• oxic environment- O2 is present
• anoxic environment- no O2 is present
Aerobes- use O2 to generate energy by
respiration
• Facultative aerobes use O2 in respiration
but can also grow in anoxic environments.
Ex. Streptococcus
mutans on teeth
E. coli in large intestine
• Obligate aerobe- use O2 in respiration &
require oxic environments for growth. Grow
at atmospheric O2 levels (21%).
Ex. Micrococcus luteus
• Microaerophile- use O2 in respiration but
require low O2 concentrations, 2-10%,
(microoxic environments) to grow.
Ex. Streptococcus pneumoniae
Anaerobes- cannot use O2 in respiration & may
be inhibited or killed by O2.
• Aerotolerant anaerobes- do not use O2 to
generate energy but can survive in presence
of it.
– Ex. Streptococcus pyogenes
• Obligate anaerobes- can only grow in anoxic
environments; may die if even minute amount
of O2 is present.
– Ex. Clostridium sporogenes, Bacteroides in
large intestine
• A reducing agent such as thioglycolate can be
added to a medium to test an organism's
requirement for O2.
• Thioglycolate reacts with O2, reducing it to
water.
• In a culture medium, thioglycolate will convert
all O2 to water; only top of
culture is exposed to O2 in the air.
 b e nt
The position of the

es
ro tive

ae era
s
es

hil
ro te bacteria within

s
s

Ae ulta
Ae liga

op
be

An otol
be

ro

ro
ae

er
Ob

c
these thioglycolate

Fa

r
oa
An

Ae
cr
broth cultures

Mi
reveals the O2
requirements for
each of the
bacteria.
• Special techniques are needed to grow
aerobic & anaerobic microorganisms in the
laboratory.
• Aerobes-
• culture medium must be oxygenated by
shaking or bubbling air into the medium.
 Anaerobes need O2 to be excluded.
• Bottles or tubes can be
filled completely with
media & sealed with a
screw cap.
• Reducing agents
(thioglycolate) can be
added to convert all O2
to water.
• Anoxic jars with a
palladium catalyst
convert O2 to water.
• For obligate anaerobes that die if exposed
to O2, media must be boiled, a reducing
agent added, then sealed under an O2-free
H2 or N2 gas.
• Work with these cultures must be done in
an anoxic environment that can be provided
by anoxic glove boxes.
 Toxic Forms of Oxygen
• Several toxic forms of oxygen or molecules that
contain oxygen can be formed in the cell during
normal cellular processes:
Singlet oxygen 1O2 produced by peroxidases
Superoxide anion O2- generated during
Hydrogen peroxide H2O2 the reduction of
Hydroxyl radical -OH oxygen to water

Enzymes made by cells can neutralize toxic

forms of oxygen.
Catalase, peroxidase, superoxide dismutase,
superoxide reductase
 These reactions generate
reactive oxygen species
(toxic oxygen products)

These reactions
destroy ROS
 Controlling Microbial Growth
Physical Agents—Temperature
• Pasteurization- 63°C for 30 minutes
• Flash pasteurization- 72°C for 15 seconds
• does NOT kill all cells
• reduces microbial load (# of viable
organisms)
• kills most pathogens; inhibits spoilage
microbes
• UHT—Ultra-high temperature
– 150°C for 3 seconds
• Sterilizes—all bacteria killed
– creamer, boxed milk
 Physical Agents
—Temperature + Pressure
• Autoclave
– 121°C, 15 psi, 20 min
– Kills all bacteria
– Destroys endospores
 Physical Agents—Other Methods
• Cold temperature
– Refrigeration
– Freezing
• Slows growth, does not kill all bacteria
 Physical Agents—Other Methods
Irradiation
• Microwaves – thermal effects
• Ultraviolet radiation – DNA damage

Ionizing X-rays nucleic acid and

radiation gamma rays protein damage
Ultraviolet radiation
• used to decontaminate surfaces & materials
that do not absorb light (air & water)
•Causes thymine dimers in DNA.
•UV hood – air is
blown outward
through a filter from
the back and from
edges of the hood so
that the area inside
the hood remains
sterile once the UV
light is turned off.
Ionizing radiation
• Gamma rays & X-rays
• penetrates solid or light-absorbing
materials
• widely used for sterilization &
decontamination (treatment of an object
or surface to make it safe to handle) in
medical & food industries
• Causes breaks in DNA; breaks hydrogen
bonds & disulfide bridges in proteins
 Physical Agents—Other Methods
Filtration
 Filter-device with pores too small for
microorganisms to fit through but large
enough for liquid or gas to pass through.
 Physical Agents—Other Methods
Filtration
 Filter-device with pores too small for
microorganisms to fit through but large
enough for liquid or gas to pass through.
 Filters remove microorganisms from air or
liquids that are heat sensitive.
 2 types: depth & membrane
Depth filters
• fibrous sheets or mats made from a random
array of overlapping paper, asbestos, or
borosilicate
• traps large particles from liquids & air
Examples
• HEPA filters
• Home air/heat system
• Vacuum cleaner
• UV hood
• Clean rooms and isolation rooms for
quarantine
Membrane filters
• thin sheets of polymers (cellulose); contain
tiny holes of known size
• Act like sieves, trap particles on membrane
surface
• Antibiotics & other pharmaceuticals
• Nucleation track (Nucleopore) filters
used for concentrating a liquid sample
for view on the scanning electron
microscope.
 Chemical Agents
• Disinfectants
– used to reduce microbial numbers on
nonliving material
• bleach (chlorine), ethanol
• Antiseptics
– used to reduce microbial numbers on living
tissues
• Betadyne (iodine), H2O2
 Chemical Agents
Antibiotics
• naturally occurring antimicrobial substances
produced by microorganisms
• Many known but less than 1 % clinically
useful because of poor uptake or toxicity.
• Selectively kills microbes
– May not work on all species
• Interferes with bacterial-specific enzymes
– Cell wall synthesis
– Bacterial ribosome
 Penicillin
• Many derivatives
• Blocks cell wall
synthesis
• Growing bacteria lyse
– Slow-growing
bacteria take
longer to die
 Biological Agents
• Probiotics
– “Good” bacteria
• Displace pathogens from tissues
• Bacteriophage
– “Phage”
– Viruses that infect bacteria
• Do not harm
eukaryotes