Morphology of microorganisms

Microorganisms are generally regarded as living forms that are

microscopic in size and relatively simple in structure.
The main distinguishing features of prokaryotic cell are:
1. It lacks nucleus. Nucleoid of prokaryotes is the equivalent of the
eukaryotic nucleus. Nucleoid doesn’t possess a nuclear membrane and
nucleolus. Bacterial DNA is a single haploid chromosome without histone
proteins.
2. It lacks the internal membrane-bound organelles (mitochondria,
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, lysosomes & chloroplasts).
5.Its rigid cell wall has very complex structure.
6.Prokaryotic protein synthesis has its own characteristic features.
Sizes of representative viruses, bacteria, mycoplasmas,
yeasts, protozoa and eukaryotic cells ( in µm)
The structure of idealized bacterial cell
The structure of idealized bacterial cell
 The structure of idealized bacterial cell

Essential components. The outer layer, or cell envelope consists of

two components – a rigid cell wall & beneath it a cytoplasmic
membrane. The cell envelope encloses the protoplasm, comprising
the cytoplasm, essential cytoplasmic structures such as ribosomes,
mesosomes (invaginations of cytoplasmic membrane into the
cytoplasm), inclusion granules & nucleoid.
Besides these essential components, some bacteria may possess
additional structures. The cell may be enclosed in a viscid layer, or
organized as a capsule. Some bacteria carry filamentous appendages,
protruding from the cell surface – the flagella which are organs of
locomotion & the fimbriae which appear to be organs of adhesion.
Inside cytoplasm sometimes additional separate fragments of DNA are
present, known as plasmids.
 The cell envelope

The layers that surround the

prokaryotic cell are referred to
as the cell envelope. The
structure & organization of the
cell envelope differ in gram-
positive (G+) and gram-negative
(G-) bacteria.

G+ cell envelope is relatively

simple. It consists of thick
peptidoglican (murein) layer &
cytoplasmic membrane under
peptidoglican. Some bacteria
have an outer layer (capsule).
 The cell envelope
G- cell envelope is a highly complex,
multilayer structure. The cytoplasmic
membrane (called the inner
membrane in G- bacteria) is
surrounded by a single planar sheet
of peptidoglycan to which is anchored
a complex layer called the outer
membrane. The space between the
inner & outer membrane is called the
periplasmic space.
Thus, the layers between the cell
envelope lying between the
cytoplasmic membrane & the capsule
is referred as the “cell wall”. The cell
wall account for the shape of bacterial
cell & confers on its rigidity & ductility.
 Structure of peptidoglycan
Peptidoglycan is a complex polymer composed of such components: a
backbone, composed of alternating N-acetylglycosamine & N-
acetylmuramic acid; a set of identical tetrapeptide side chains attached
to N-acetylmuranic acid; & a set of identical cross brides.
Th e b ac kb one i s the s am e in al l b ac teri al spec ie s ; the
tetrap ep tide si de cha in s & t he p ep tide c ross b rid ges
vary fr om s pec ies to s pec ies .
In many G- cell walls, the cross-linkage consist of a direct peptide
linkage between the diaminopimelic acid (DAP) & the aminogroup of
one side chain & the carboxyl group of the terminal D-alanine of a
second side chain.
The tetrapeptide side chain of all species, however, have certain
important features in common. Most have L-alanine at position 1
(attached to N-acetylmuramic acid); D-glutamate at position 2; and D-
alanine at position 4. Position 3 is the most variable one: most G-
bacteria have diaminopimelic acid at this position, but G+ bacteria may
have diaminopimelic acid, L-lysine or any other L-aminoacids at position
3.
Structure of a backbone
A segment of the peptidoglycan of Staphylococcus aureus
 Peptidoglycan
The fact that all peptidoglycan chains are cross-linked means that each
peptidoglycan layer is a single giant molecule. In G+ bacteria there are as
many as 40 sheets of peptidoglycan, comprising up to 50% of cell wall
material; in G- bacteria appear only one or two sheets, comprising 5-10%
of the cell wall material.
 G+ bacterial cell wall
Most G+ bacterial cell walls contain considerable amounts of
teichoic & teichuronic acids, which may account for up to 50% of all dry
weight of the wall & 10% of the dry weight of the total cell. There are
two types of teichoic acids: wall teichoic acid, covalently linked to
peptidoglycan; & membrane teichoic acid (lipoteichoic acid), covalently
linked to membrane glycolipid & concentrated in mesosomes.
Functions. (1)Teichoic acids constitute major surface antigens of G+
species, (2) supply magnesium ions to the cell, (3) ensure the
permeability of cell wall, but also (4) causes the cell to resist the
autolysis & (5) to lose the activity to take up the transforming DNA.
The teichuronic acids are similar polimers but the repeat units sugar
acids (such as N-acetyl-mannusuronic or D-glucosuronic acids)
instead of phosphoric acids. They are synthesized in place of teichoic
acids when phosphate is limiting.
 G- bacterial cell wall
G- cell walls contain three component that lie
outside of two peptidoglycan layer: lipoprotein, outer
membrane & lipopolysaccharide.
Lipoprotein: molecules of an unusial
lipoprotein cross-link the outer membrane &
peptidoglycan layers and serves for stabilization.
Outer membrane is a bilayered structure: its
inner leaflet resembles in composition that of the
cytoplasmic membrane while phospholipids of outer
leaflet are replaced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS)
molecules. The leaflets of this membrane are
assymetrical in comparison with cytoplasmic
membrane. Such structure serves for protection
against bile salts. The outer membrane has special
channels consisting of protein molecules called porins
that permit the passive diffusion of low-molecular-
weight hydrophylic compounds like sugars,
aminoacids & certain ions. Large antibiotic molecules
penetrate the outer membrane relatively slow, which
accounts for the relatively high antibiotic resistance of
G- bacteria.
 Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)
Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) of G- cell walls
consists of a complex lipid (called lipid A -
phospholylated glycosamine disaccharide
which are attached to a number of long chain
fatty acids), which is attached a
polysaccharide made of a core (usually 8
polysaccharides including KDO) & terminal
series of repeat units (up to 25) of linear
trisaccharides. LPS is attached to the outer
membrane by hydrophylic bonds.
LPS stabilizes the membrane of G- &
provides a barrier to hydrophobic molecules.
LPS is extremely toxic to animals & is called
endotoxin of G- bacteria. It is bound to the
cell surface & released only when the cells
are lysed. Terminal repeat units represent a
major surface antigen of bacterial cell - O-
antigen.
 Periplasmic space

The periplasmic space is the space between the

inner & outer membrane. It contains the murein
layer & gel-like solution of proteins. The periplasmic
space is approximately of 20-40% of the cell
volume of G- bacteria. The periplasmic proteins
include binding proteins for specific substrates
(aminoacids, sugars, vitamins & ions), hydrolytic
enzymes & detoxifying enzymesthat inactivate
certain antibiotics.
 Bacterial cytoplasmic membrane
Bacterial cytoplasmic
membrane is a typical
bilayer phospholipid
membrane containing
proteins, but the membrane
of prokaryotes are
distinguished from those of
eukaryotic cells by the
absence of sterols, the only
exception being
mycoplasmas that
incorporate sterols, such as
cholesterol.
 Bacterial cytoplasmic membrane

Functions:
2. Selective permeability & transport of solutes.
3. Electron transport & active phosphorylation in aerobic
species.
4. Excretion of hydrolytic enzymes.
5. Bearing the enzymes & carrier molecules that function
in the biosynthesis of DNA, cell wall polymers &
membrane lipids.
6. Bearing the receptors & other proteins of the
chemotactic & other sensory trunsduction systems.
 Mesosomes

Convoluted invaginations of cytoplasmic membrane form

specialized structure called mesosomes. There are two
types: septal mesosomes and lateral mesosomes.
Functions of mesosomes:
3.Formation of cross-walls during division (binary fission)
because the bacterial chromosome is attached to septal
mesosome.
4. Active electron transport systems are located here
(especially in photosynthetic and nitrogen-fixing bacteria).
 Bacterial cytoplasm, bacterial ribosomes

The bacterial cytoplasm is a colloidal system of a variety of

organic & inorganic solutes in a viscous watery solution. The cytoplasm
contains nucleoid, ribosomes, mesosomes, inclusions and, sometimes,
plasmids.
Ribosomes are centers of protein synthesis. Bacterial
ribosomes are slightly smaller than the ribosomes of eukaryotic cells.
The bacterial ribosome consists of small subunit 30 S (RNA molecule
16 S) + large subunit 50 S (RNA molecules 23 S + 5 S), forming 70 S
ribosome. This is unlike eukaryotic 80 S (40 S (small subunit) + 60 S
(large subunit)). The proteins and RNA of the bacterial ribosome are
significantly different from those of eukariotic ribosomes and are major
targets for antibacterial drugs.
 Nucleoid
Nucleoid of prokaryotes is the equivalent of the eukaryotic
nucleus.
Characteristic features of nucleoid:
•Nucleoid lacks nuclear membrane and mitotic apparatus;
•Nucleoid lacks histone proteins (but histone-like proteins
are present in bacteria and presumably play the role similar
to that of histones of eukaryotes;
•Nucleoid lacks nucleolus;
•Bacterial DNA is single haploid chromosome. It can be
circular ( for most microorganisms) or linear (for Borrelia
burgdorferi and several Streptomyces species).
 L-forms
Removal of bacterial cell wall may be accomplished by hydrolysis with
lysozyme or by blocking peptidoglycan biosynthesis with antibiotic such
as penicillin. In osmotically protective media such treatment liberate
protoplasts from G+ cells & spheroplasts (which retain outer membrane
& entrapped peptidoglican) from G- cells .
If such cells are able to grow & divide, they are called L-forms. L-forms
are produced more readily with penicillin than with lysozyme. L-forms
are difficult to cultivate because they require a medium with right
osmotic strength.
Some L-forms are stable, others can revert to the normal bacillary form
of the inducing stimulus.
Some bacteria produce the L-forms spontaneously. Such L-forms are
great problem because they induce chronic infections resistant to
antibiotic treatment.
 Capsule
Some bacteria have other exterior structures such as capsule, flagella
& pili.
The capsule is a slimy outer coating made by certain bacteria.
Capsules usually consist of high molecular weight polysaccharides that
make bacteria very slippery & difficult for white blood cells to
phagocytize. The one exception to polysaccharide is poly-D-glytamic
acid capsule of B.anthracis. Capsule of bacteria can be detected by
Burry-Ginz stain in pure culture or by simple and Gram stains in
imprints of tissues or organs for chronic infection. The thickness of
capsule is proportional the duration of infection.
 Flagella

Flagella are long helical filaments

that endow bacteria with motility.
Many successful pathogens are
motile, which probably aids their
spread in the environment &
possibly in the body of the host.
Flagella are composed of a
protein subunit called flagellin.
Flagella contain prominent
antigenic determinants.
 Flagella

A single bacterial cell

may have one flagellum
(monotrichous (1)) or
many flagella
(lofotrichous(3),
amphitrichous (2,4),
peritrichous(5)) . Flagella
can be stained by silver
impregnation or Loeffler
stain. Also flagella can
be revealed by electron
microscopy.
 Examples:
monotrichous bacteria –Vibrio cholerae,
lofotrichous bacteria – Helicobacter pilori,
amphitrichous bacteria - Pseudomonas
aeruginosa and Campylobacter jejuni,
peritrichous bacteria – Salmonella spp.
 Pili (fimbriae)
Pili (fimbriae) are rigid surface appendages
composed mainly of protein. They exist in
two classes: ordinary pili (I type pili), which
are shorter than flagella and involved in
bacterial adherence and colonization (such
pili are highly antigenic), & specialized sex
pili (II type pili), which are much longer than
flagella and link donor (male)& recipient
(female) cells during transfer of DNA in
conjugation.
Pili have other roles in disease. Like
capsules, they can be antiphagocytic. Pili
can be revealed only by electron
microscopy.
1-flagella, 2-ordinary fimbriae
 Spores
Spores are formed in response to certain
adverse nutritional conditions. They are
inactive bacterial cells that are resistant to
dessication, heat & various chemicals.
They possess a core that contain many cell
components, a spore wall, a cortex, a coat,
& an exosporium. They contain low content
of water and high content of calcium and
dipicolinic acid, which aids in heat
resistance within a spore. They germinate
under favorable nutritional conditions
following an activation process that involves
damage to the spore coat. They are helpful
in identifying some species of bacteria.