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PLANT REPRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT

OUTLINE

Introduction Plant life cycles Sexual Reproduction Asexual Reproduction Reproductive Structures Pollination and Fertilization The Seed

Introduction

Plants reproduce in a wide variety of ways Among the many major group of plants, only one the angiosperms produces flower Others such as mosses and ferns reproduce sexually without flowers Many plants can undergo asexual reproduction too

Plant Life Cycles


i) ii)

i)

ii)

Terminologies: Sporophyte : produces spores by meiosis. Gametophyte : produces gametes by mitosis. Several structures and processes are common to most or all of the plant life cycles: Meiosis occurs in sporophytes and results in production of haploid spores. Meiosis and spore production occur inside structures called sporangia. Spores divide by mitosis to form multicellular, haploid gametophytes.

Plant Life Cycles


iii)

In many species, mature gametophytes develop reproductive structures known as gametangia. Inside gametangia, haploid gametes are produced by mitosis.

iv) Fertilization occurs when two gametes fuse to form a diploid zygote. The zygote then grows by mitosis to form the sporophyte.

Sexual Reproduction

Sexual reproduction is based on meiosis and fertilization. Meosis is a nuclear division that cuts the chromosome number by half. Fertilization is the fusion of haploid cell known as gametes. The results of fertilization is the production of offspring called zygote.

Sexual Reproduction

Flowers that have separate male and female flowers on the same plant is known as monoecious. Flowers that only have male or female flower is known as dioecious.

Sexual Reproduction

Asexual Reproduction

i) ii) iii)

Does not involve meiosis or fertilization and results the production of clones genetically identical to the copy of the parent plant. Methods:
Rhizomes Corms Plantlets

REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURES
THE GENERAL STRUCTURE OF FLOWER

REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURES

Flower are made of 4 basic parts:

Sepals - Arranged in a shorl around the receptacle the site where floral organs attach to the stem. Relatively thick. ii) Petals - Bright coloured and scented.
i)

REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURES
iii)

Stamens Consists of a slender stalk (filament) and pollen producing organs (anther)

iv)

Carpels Consists of three regions: (1) stigma: moist tip that receives pollen, (2) style: slender stalk and (3) ovary: female gametophytes are produced in ovule.

REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURES

Complete flowers have all 4 whorls of modified leaves. (monecious) Incomplete flowers are missing one or more flower parts.

Flowers may have radial symmetry (considered a primitive trait) or they can have bilateral symmetry. The bilateral symmetry --as found in orchids-- is designed to fit a specific pollinator (bee or wasp) like a key to a lock preventing the plant from self pollinating.

Producing The Female Gametophyte

Meanwhile, in the ovule of the ovary, the megaspore mother cell divides meitotically to produce 4 haploid megaspores. Three of these 4 megaspores disintegrate. The fourth megaspore undergoes 3 cycles of mitosis to produce the female gametophyte, consisting of 7 cells with a total of 8 haploid nuclei. The central cell contains 2 polar nuclei. Three cells are found at each end of the large central cell. The middle cell located near the micropyle, a small opening in the ovule is the egg.

Producing The Female Gametophyte

Producing Male Gametophyte

In the anther, diploid microspore mother cells undergo meiosis to produce 4 haploid microspores.

The nucleus in each of these microspores divides once by mitosis to produce a pollen grain with two haploid cells.
This pollen grain is the male gametophyte.

Producing Male Gametophyte

One of the cells of the pollen grain contains the tube nucleus which enables the pollen tube to grow down the style of the flower to the ovule. The other cell of the pollen grain, the generative cell, divides mitotically to form 2 haploid sperm.

Producing Male Gametophyte

Pollination

Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from an anther to stigma. Cross pollination is when the pollen is carried from the anther of one individual to the stigma of a different individual. Self pollination is when pollen falls from the anther of one individual onto the stigma of the same individual.

Pollination

Twenty thousand bee species are included among current-day pollinators. Many bee-pollinated flowers are delicately sweet and fragrant.

Flowers pollinated by beetles tend to have different, stronger odors.


Moth and butterfly-pollinated flowers also often have sweet fragrances. Night-flying moths tend to visit white or yellow flowers.

POLLINATION

Butterflies tend to visit bright blue, yellow, or orange flowers. Nectaries are at bottom of corolla tubes. Situated for specialized mouth parts. Flowers visited by birds are often bright red or yellow, and usually have little, if any, odor. Typically large flowers. Many bird-pollinated flowers produce copious amounts of nectar to assure repeated visits. Bats tend to visit flowers that open only at night.

Fertilization

Fertilization occurs when a sperm and an egg unite to form a diploid zygote. After landing on the stigma of a mature flower from the same species, a pollen grain absorbs water and germinates.
The male gametophyte produces a long filament called a pollen tube.

Plant development

plants develop by building their bodies outward, creating new parts called meristems compare to animals, plant are immobile and anchored in position plants have mechanisms to adjust the path of its development to environment

Plant development
Early cell division i. one daughter cells is small, with dense cytoplasm ii. the future embryo divide repeatedly, forming ball of cells iii. the other daughter cell divide to form suspensor iv. suspensor, links the embryo to the nutrient tissue of the seed v. cell near the suspensor to form root, those at the other hand of the axis become a shoot

Plant development
Tissue formation i. from suspensor, three basic tissues differentiate and embryo is still a ball of cells ii. the outermost cells become epidermal cell, second layer is ground tissue cells and the core of embryo are the future vascular tissue Seed formation i. flowering plant embryo develops one or two seed leaves called cotyledons

Plant development
Germination i. seed response to the change in environment ii. embryo resumes development and grows rapidly, roots downward and leaf-bearing shoots upward Meristematic development and morphogenesis i. apical meristems at the root and shoot generate large number of cells to form leaves, flowers, . ii. meristems activity was influenced by hormones iii. plant body determined by changes in cell shape

Establishing Three Tissue Systems

three basic tissue differentiate, embryo still a ball of cells protoderm (outermost cells) will become dermal tissue - produce cells that protect plant from desiccation ground tissue cells - function in food and water storage procambium (core of embryo) will become vascular tissue - water and nutrient transport

Establishing Three Tissue Systems


Root and shoot formation shoot apical meristem will give rise to leaves reproductive structure formation is influence by auxin Morphogenesis generation of form, results from changes in planes and rates of cell division direction of plant was controlled by microtubule and actin

Establishing Three Tissue Systems


Food storage during embryogenesis, starch, lipids and proteins was produced sporophyte transfers nutrient via suspensor in peas and beans, nutrients are stored in thick, fleshy cotyledons endosperm in coconut is in liquid form, in corn it is solid

Seed and Fruit Development

function of flowering is to produce seeds and disperse them events in seed formation begin with pollination an ovary contains one or more ovules that will become seeds if they are fertilized. the ovule is attached to the ovary wall by a stalk that provides nutrients taking food through its stalk, the developing seed expands its endosperm and embryo

Seed and Fruit Development

when the embryo is mature and dormant, the integuments develop into a protective seed coat and detach from the ovary wall cotyledons absorb food from the endosperm and transfer it to the embryo when seeds are mature enough, the ovaries change into fruits. many patterns of fruit development, depending on the number of carpels, ovaries, and flowers that form one fruit.

Seed and Fruit Development

seeds contain dormant embryos with a food supply and a protective coat they can sense the environment, causing the young plant to resume its growth when conditions favor survival all seeds need oxygen, warmth, and water to germinate, some seeds need light and some dont when the root emerges, the seed has germinated. seeds often germinate underground, and the delicate shoot tip and young leaves need protection

SEED

a seed is made up of three parts i) the embryo ii) a food supply (endosperm and cotyledons) iii) a protective seed coat (which is important for maintaining dormancy and preventing rot)

STRUCTURE OF SEED

Fruits

during seed formation, flower ovary develop into fruit, and the formation can occurs in many ways fruits with fleshy covering, shiny black or bright blue or red dispersed by birds fruits with hooked spines dispersed by mammals, including human maples, elms and ashes have wings which aid distribution by wind evolution of angiosperm structures allows fruits to be dispersed by animals, wind and water

Germination and Growth


Mechanism of germination first step of development outside its seed coat begins when seed absorbs water also require oxygen for cellular respiration can occur in wide temperature (0oC to 30oC) dormancy may be broken when conditions favor plant growth

How Dormancy is Broken

after the uptake of water the plant hormone gibberellic acid is released. it acts on the aleurone layer found just below the seed coat to stimulated the enzyme alpha-amylase. the amylase mobilizes the starchy reserves of the endosperm. The resulting sugars quickly supply the meristematic tissues the energy they need to begin cell division.

The Seedling

in all seedlings a root develops first and grows down into the soil. Then the shoot must emerge from the embryo and search out light above the soil and leaf litter. when stems and leaves emerge above ground chloroplasts in them rapidly mature turning the plant green. the epicotyl which emerges from a seedling is an example of primary growth.

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