Chapter 23

Machining Processes Used to Produce Various Shapes

Alexandra Schnning, Ph.D. Mechanical Engineering University of North Florida
Figures by Manufacturing Engineering and Technology Kalpakijan and Schmid

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Introduction What is milling? A manufacturing process in which a rotating, multitooth cutter removes material while traveling along various axes with respect to the workpiece. Other processes will be discussed, such as
Planing, shaping, broaching, sawing, filing, and gear manufacturing.

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Milling operations
Slab milling (Figure a)
Arbor, cutter
Figure 23.3 A typical part that can be produced on a milling machine equipped with computer controls. Such parts can be made efficiently and repetitively on computer numerical control (CNC) machines, without the need for refixturing or reclamping the part.

Face milling (Figure b)

Spindle and cutter

End milling (Figure c)

Spindle, shank, end mill

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Slab Milling
Also called peripheral milling The axis of cutter rotation is parallel to the workpiece surface to be machined The cutter has a teeth along its circumference where each tooth acts as a single point cutting tool Conventional vs. Climb milling
Conventional milling
Also called up-milling: the rotation of the cutter is such that it first engages the workpiece at the bottom. The cut is not a function of the surface characteristics Common method of milling. Proper clamping is necessary to prevent the upward rotation of the cutter.
Also called down-milling: the rotation is such that the cutter first engages the workpiece at the top. Cutting forces holds the workpiece in place. However, a rigid setup is important since there are high impact forces.

Climb milling

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Conventional and Climb Milling

Figure 23.4 (a) Schematic illustration of conventional milling and climb milling. (b) Slab milling operation, showing depth of cut, d, feed per tooth, f, chip depth of cut, tc, and workpiece speed, v. (c) Schematic illustration of cutter travel distance lc to reach full depth of cut.

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Milling Parameters
The velocity at the point of contact
v v r
rad s lengt h
N = angular speed in rpm. This version of the formula is used in the book. It includes the unit conversion from rpm to radiance per minute. The units of the velocity are distance/min.

Material Removal Rate

MRR l w d t w d v

D N

Definitions of symbols Definition of Symbols

tc: chip thickness f: feed per tooth of cutter D: depth of cut N: angular speed in rpm n: number of teeth on cutter periphery v: linear speed (feed rate) t: cutting time L: length of the workpiece Lc: extent of the cutter's first contact with the workpiece (illustration on next page) w: width of cut
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The chip thickness can be found

tc 2 f d D

Feed per tooth

f v N n
As tc gets larger the forces on the cutter tooth increases

Cutting time
t ( l lc) v
It is assumed that lc<<l

Illustration of Lc

Lc: extent of the cutter's first contact with the workpiece

Lc
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Summary of Milling Parameters and Formulas

TABLE 23.1 N = f = D = n = v = V = Rotational speed of the milling cutter, rpm Feed, mm/tooth or in./tooth Cutter diameter, mm or in. Number of teeth on cutter Linear speed of the workpiece or feed rate, mm/min or in./min Surface speed of cutter, m/min or ft/min =D N f = Feed per tooth, mm/tooth or in/tooth =v /N n l = Length of cut, mm or in. t = Cutting time, s or min =( l+lc ) v , where lc =extent of the cutters first contact with workpiece MRR = mm3/min or in.3/min =w d v , where w is the width of cut Torque = N-m or lb-ft ( Fc ) (D/2) Power = kW or hp = (Torque) ( ), where = 2 N radians/min Note: The units given are those that are commonly used; however, appropriate units must be used in the formulas.

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Example
Specific energy: 1.1 hp*min/in3 A slab milling operation is being Table 20:2 (annealed mild carried out on a 12-in long, 4 in steel) wide annealed mild steel block at Find a feed f=0.01 in/tooth and a Material Removal Rate depth of cut d=1/8 in. The cutter Power is D=2in in diameter, and has 20 Torque straight teeth, rotates at N = Cutting time 100rpm, and is wider than the in v 20 block to be machined. Calculate v f N n min the material Removal rate, 3 estimate the power and torque in required for this operation, and MRR w d v MRR 10 calculate the cutting time. min

Given:

w=4in L=12 in f=0.01 in/tooth d=1/8 in D=2 in n = 20 teeth N = 100 rpm Cutter width > block width

Power spec_enrg MRR To rque Power 33000 N 2

Power 11

hp

To rque 577.7 lb ft Lc 0.5 in

Lc D d t ( L Lc) n 60

t 37.5 seconds
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Face Milling
Cutter is mounted on a spindle having an external axis of rotation perpendicular to the workpiece surface Workpiece moves along a straight path at a linear speed, v. Direction of cutter
Conventional milling (Fig. c)

Leaves feed marks on the machined surface Terminology in figure

Lead angles: 0-45o. Low angle low vertical force

Climb milling (Fig. b)

down-milling

up-milling

Figure 23.8 Terminology for a face-milling cutter.

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Face Milling

Figure 23.6 A face-milling cutter with indexable inserts. Source: Courtesy of Ingersoll Cutting Tool Company.
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Cutter and Insert Position in Face Milling

Figure 23.10 (a) Relative position of the cutter and insert as it first engages the workpiece in face milling, (b) insert positions towards the end of the cut, and (c) examples of exit angles of insert, showing desirable (positive or negative angle) and undesirable (zero angle) positions. In all figures, the cutter spindle is perpendicular to the page.

Third example in figure c: the insert exits the workpiece suddenly as opposed to exiting with an angle.

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End milling
The cutter, called an end mill, rotates about an axis perpendicular to the workpiece surface (typically can be at an angle) Ball nose: A type of end mill in which the bottom surface is rounded
Used in the production of curved surfaces for dies and molds

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Other Milling Operations and Cutters

Straddle milling: two or more cutters are mounted on an arbor and are used to machine two parallel surfaces on the workpiece
Easier to keep tolerances than if milling one surface at a time

Form milling: produces curved profiles. Also used in machining gear teeth. Circular cutters can be used for slotting and slitting.
Slitting saws are typically < 5mm.

T-slot cutters: used to mill Tslots which are used in clamping workpieces to the work table. (figure next page)
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Other Milling Operations and Cutters

T-slot cutter
Note order of cuts:
1st: cut slott so the T-cutter can move 2nd: finish the T-slot

Shell milling
Has a hollow inside. Mounted on a shank.
Allows the same shank to be used for different size cutters

Figure 23.12 (a) T-slot cutting with a milling cutter. (b) A shell mill.
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Tool holders Milling cutters are classified as

Arbor cutters
Mounted on an arbor Used in slab, face, straddle, and form milling

Shank cutters
The cutter and the shank are one piece. Examples include end mills Straight shanks

Mounted collet chucks or special end mill holder

Tapered shanks
Tapered for better clamping. Common on larger end mills Mounted in tapered tool holders

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Arbor

Figure 23.13 Mounting a milling cutter on an arbor for use on a horizontal milling machine.

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Milling Process Capabilities Process capabilities include

Surface finish, dimensional tolerance, production rate, and cost consideration

Feed rate (typical): 0.1 mm/tooth 0.5 mm/tooth Depth of cut (typical): 1-8 mm Cutting speeds (varies much): 30m/min to 3000m/min

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Capacities and Maximum Workpiece Dimensions for Machine Tools

TABLE 23.2 Typical Capacities and Maximum Workpiece Dimensions for Some Machine Tools
Machine tool Milling machines (table travel) Knee-and-column Bed Numerical control Planers (table travel) Broaching machines (length) Gear cutting (gear diameter) Maximum dimension m (ft) 1.4 (4.6) 4.3 (14) 5 (16.5) 10 (33) 2 (6.5) 5 (16.5) Power (kW) 20 100 0.9 MN Maximum speed 4000 rpm 1.7

Note: Larger capacities are available for special applications.

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TABLE 23.3 Approximate Cost of Selected Tools for Machining*

Tools Drills, HSS, straight shank Size (in.) Cost ($) 1/4 1.002.00 1/2 3.006.00 Coated (TiN) 1/4 2.603.00 1/2 1015 Tapered shank 1/4 2.507.00 1 1545 2 8085 3 250 4 950 Reamers, HSS, hand 1/4 1015 1/2 1015 Chucking 1/2 510 1 2025 1 1/2 4055 End mills, HSS 1/2 1015 1 1530 Carbide-tipped 1/2 3035 1 4560 Solid carbide 1/2 3070 1 180 Burs, carbide 1/2 1020 1 5060 Milling cutters, HSS, staggered tooth, wide 4 3575 8 130260 Collets (5 core) 1 1020 *Cost depends on the particular type of material and shape of tool, its quality, and the amount purchased.

Approximate Cost of Selected Tools for Machining

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TABLE 23.4
General-purpose starting conditions Feed Speed mm/tooth m/min (in./tooth) (ft/min)
0.130.20 (0.0050.008) 120180 (400600)

Workpiece material
Low-C and freemachining steels Alloy steels Soft

Cutting tool
Uncoated carbide, coated carbide, cermets Uncoated, coated, cermets Cermets, PCBN

Range of conditions Feed Speed mm/tooth m/min (in./tooth) (ft/min)

0.0850.38 (0.0030.015) 90425 (3001400)

General Recommendations for Milling Operations

Hard Cast iron, gray Soft Hard Stainless steel, austenitic High-temperature alloys, nickel base Titanium alloys Aluminum alloys Free machining High silicon Copper alloys Thermoplastics and thermosets

0.100.18 (0.0040.007) 0.100.15 (0.0040.006) 0.1010.20 (0.0040.008) 0.100.20 (0.0040.008) 0.130.18 (0.0050.007) 0.100.18 (0.0040.007) 0.130.15 (0.0050.006) 0.130.23 (0.0050.009) 0.13 (0.005) 0.130.23 (0.0050.009) 0.130.23 (0.0050.009)

90170 (300550) 180210 (600700) 120760 (4002500) 120210 (400700) 120370 (4001200) 30370 (1001200) 5060 (175200) 610900 (20003000) 610 (2000) 300760 (10002500) 270460 (9001500)

0.080.30 (0.0030.012) 0.080.25 (0.0030.010) 0.080.38 (0.0030.015) 0.080.38 (0.0030.015) 0.080.38 (0.0030.015) 0.080.38 (0.0030.015) 0.080.38 (0.0030.015) 0.080.46 (0.0030.018) 0.080.38 (0.0030015) 0.080.46 (0.0030.018) 0.080.46 (0.0030.018)

60370 (2001200) 75460 (2501500) 901370 (3004500) 90460 (3001500) 90500 (3001800) 30550 (901800) 40140 (125450) 3003000 (100010,000) 370910 (12003000) 901070 (3003500) 901370 (3004500)

Uncoated, coated, cermets, SiN Cermets, SiN, PCBN Uncoated, coated, cermets Uncoated, coated, cermets, SiN, PCBN Uncoated, coated, cermets Uncoated, coated, PCD PCD Uncoated, coated, PCD Uncoated, coated, PCD

Source: Based on data from Kennametal Inc. Note: Depths of cut, d , usually are in the range of 18 mm (0.040.3 in.). PCBN: polycrystalline cubic boron nitride ; PCD: polycrystalline diamond. Note: See also Table 22.2 for range of cutting speeds within tool material groups.

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General Troubleshooting Guide for Milling Operations

TABLE 23.5
Problem Tool breakage Tool wear excessive Rough surface finish Tolerances too broad Workpiece surface burnished Back striking Chatter marks Burr formation Breakout Probable causes Tool material lacks toughness; improper tool angles; cutting parameters too high. Cutting parameters too high; improper tool material; improper tool angles; improper cutting fluid. Feed too high; spindle speed too low; too few teeth on cutter; tool chipped or worn; built-up edge; vibration and chatter. Lack of spindle stiffness; excessive temperature rise; dull tool; chips clogging cutter. Dull tool; depth of cut too low; radial relief angle too small. Dull cutting tools; cutter spindle tilt; negative tool angles. Insufficient stiffness of system; external vibrations; feed, depth, and width of cut too large. Dull cutting edges or too much honing; incorrect angle of entry or exit; feed and depth of cut too high; incorrect insert geometry. Lead angle too low; incorrect cutting edge geometry; incorrect angle of entry or exit; feed and depth of cut too high.

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Surface Features and Corner Defects

Figure 23.14 Surface features and corner defects in face milling operations; see also Fig. 23.7. For troubleshooting, see Table 23.5. Source: Kennametal Inc.

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Design and Operating Guidelines for Milling

Similar to the guidelines for turning Use standard milling cutters Chamfers should be used instead of radii because of the difficulty of smoothly matching various intersecting surfaces Internal cavities and pockets with sharp corners should be avoided since cutters have a finite radius Workpieces should be sufficiently rigid to minimize any defects resulting from clamping and cutting forces. Minimizing vibrations
Cutters should be mounted close to spindle to reduce tool deflection Tool holders and fixtures should be as rigid as possible If vibration occurs
Modify tool shape and/or process conditions Used a cutter with fewer teeth or with random tooth spacing

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Milling Machines
Column-and-knee type machines
Most common The spindle may be horizontal or vertical

Machine consists of
A work table: on which the workpiece is clamped. A saddle: supports the table and moves in a perpendicular direction A knee: supports the saddle and allows for vertical movement (depth of cut) An overarm: in horizontal machines. It can accommodate different arbor lengths A head: contains a spindle and cutter holder
Horizontal spindle

Plain miling machines: 3 axes Universal column-and-knee milling machines: 4th axes (rotational)
vertical spindle

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Other types of milling machines Bed-typed milling

A bed is used instead of the knee. No vertical movement is possible. The work table is mounted directly on the bed. Used in high production runs for simple parts.
Figure 23.17 Schematic illustration of a bed-type milling machine. Note the single vertical-spindle cutter and two horizontal spindle cutters. Source: ASM International.

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Planing and shaping Cutting operation by which flat surfaces, grooves, and notches are produced along the length of the workpiece. Typically performed on large workpieces. The workplane is mounted on a table that travels along a straight path A horizontal cross-rail can be moved vertically Shaping: similar to planing but for smaller parts
Used to machine notches, keyways, and dies

Figure 23.20 Typical parts that can be made on a planer.

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Broaching and Broaching Machines

What is a broach? Used for what?
A long multitooth cutting tool.
To machine internal or external surfaces, such as holes of different sections, the teeth of internal gears, multiple spline holes, and flat surfaces. Rake angle typically from 0-20 degrees. Clearance angle typically from 0-4 degrees. Pitch = k*sqrt(L) (to find appropriate pitch)
k = 1.76 when L is in mm k = 0.35 when L is in inches L = length of surface to be cut

At least two or more teeth should be in contact. Different type of broaches exist
Surface broaches:
Slab broaches (for cutting flat surfaces), slot, contour, dovetail, straddle, pot (precision of external shapes)

Terminology and geometry:

Internal broaches include hole, keyway, internal gear, and rifling

Figure 23.22 (a) Cutting action of a broach, showing various features. (b) Terminology for a broach.

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Broaching and Broaching Machines

Turn broaching
The workpiece is rotated between centers, and the broach passes tangentially across the bearing surfaces and remove material

Broaching Machines
Either pull or push the broaches and are made either horizontal or vertical. Forces required depend on workpiece material, total depth and width of cut, and cutting speed.

Broaching process parameters

Cutting speeds range from 1.5m/min for high strength alloys to 15m/min for Aluminum alloys Ceramic inserts may be used for finishing operations

Design Considerations for Broaching

Parts should be designed such that they can be clamped securely Blind holes, sharp corners, dovetail splines, and large flat surfaces should be avoided Chamfers are preferred over round corners

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Chipbreakers and a Broaching Machine

Figure 23.23 Chipbreaker features on (a) a flat broach and (b) a round broach. (c) Vertical broaching machine. Source: Ty Miles, Inc.
(a) (c)

(b)

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Internal Broach and Turn Broaching

Figure 23.24 Terminology for a pull-type internal broach used for enlarging long holes. Figure 23.25 Turn broaching of a crankshaft. The crankshaft rotates while the broaches pass tangentially across the crankshafts bearing surfaces. Source: Courtesy of Ingersoll Cutting Tool Company.

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Sawing
A saw consists of a blade with a series of small teeth. The width of the cut is called the kerf and is typically thin resulting in little waste material. At least two or three teeth should be engaged for the blade to prevent snagging (catching the saw tooth on the workpiece). The thinner the stock, the finer the saw teeth should be, and the greater the number per unit length.

Figure 23.27 Examples of various sawing operations. Source: DoALL Company.

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Sawing Types of saw teeth

Figure 23.28 (a) Terminology for saw teeth. (b) Types of tooth set on saw teeth, staggered to provide clearance for the saw blade to prevent binding during sawing.

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Sawing
Types of saws
Hacksaw: Straight blades, reciprocating motion. Cutting only takes place during one of the two reciprocating strokes. Circular saw: Also called cold saw. Used for Band saw: continuous long, flexible blades and have a continuous cutting action. (both ways) runt band Diamond edge blades and diamond wire saws: high strength wire is coated with diamond particles. Used for cutting hard metallic, nonmetallic, and composite materials.

Friction sawing
A steel blade, or disk, rubs against the workpiece at speeds up to 7600m/min. The frictional energy is converted into heat, which softens a narrow zone in the workpiece. Used to cut hard ferrous metals and reinforced plastics. Commonly used to remove flash form castings
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Filing and Finishing Filing: Small scale removal of material from a surface, corner, or hole, including removal of burrs. Shapes: flat, round, half round, and triangular Rotary files and burs:
Used for removing material in die making, deburring, scale removal from surfaces, and producing chamfers on parts

Figure 23.30 Types of burs. Source: The Copper Group.

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Gear Manufacturing by Machining

How are gears manufactured?
Casting, forging, extrusion, drawing, thread rolling, powder metallurgy, blanking sheet metal, injection molding (non metallic), casting (non metallic), and machining.
Figure 23.31 Nomenclature for an involute spur gear.

Gears can be machined by

Form cutting (future slides) Gear generating (future slides)

Gear terminology
Page 22-36

Form Cutting
The gear-tooth shape us reproduced by cutting the gear blank around its periphery. After each tooth is cut, the cutter is withdrawn, and the gear blank is rotated (indexed). Form cutting can be done on milling machines, with the cutter mounted on an arbor and the gear blank mounted in a dividing head. Limitation:
Form cutting can only produce gear teeth that have constant width (spur and helical but not beveled gears.

Figure 23.32 (a) Producing gear teeth on a blank by from cutting. (b) Schematic illustration of gear generating with a pinionshaped gear cutter. (c) Schematic illustration of gear generating in a gear shaper using a pinion-shaped cutter. Note that the cutter reciprocates vertically. (d) Gear generating with rack-shaped cutter.

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Gear Generating
The cutting tools in gear generating may be one of the following:
A pinion-shaped cutter
The cutter is one of the gears in a conjugate pair. The other gear is the blank.

A rack-shaped straight cutter

The generating tool is a segment of a rack which reciprocates parallel to the axis of the gear blank.

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Gear Generating
Hob: A worm or screw made into a geargenerating tool.
It consists of slots that will be used to cut the teeth. The angle between the axis of the hob and the gear are about 90 degrees apart.

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Cutting Bevel Gears

Figure 23.34 (a) Cutting a straight bevel-gear blank with two cutters. (b) Cutting a spiral bevel gear with a single cutter. Source: ASM International.

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Gear Finishing Procedures

Grinding
Form Grinding
The shape of the wheel is identical to the tooth spacing. (Figure A)

Honing
The tool is a plastic gear impregnated with fine abrasive particles. Improves surface finish.

Generating
The grinding wheel acts as shown in Figure (b)

Lapping
To further improve surface finish. Uses an abrasive compound

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Gear Manufacturers Association AGMA: American Gear Manufacturers Association

Sets the standards for gears in the US

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