Being Human and Evolution

Evolution
- Belief that species arose from others through a long and gradual process of transformation or descent modification. Creationism- Explanation for the origin of species given in genesis: God created the species during the original six days of creation. Theory- set of ideas formulated to explain something. The main value of a theory is to promote new understanding. A theory suggests patterns, connections, and relationships that may be confirmed by new research

Theory of Creationism and Theory of Evolution: Theories which try to explain the origin of man. Biblical scholars James Ussher and John Lightfoot claimed to trace the creation to very specific time- October 23 4004 B.C at 9:00 AM.

 Charles Darwin- best known evolutionist, he was influenced by: a. Erasmus Darwin b. Charles Lyell- (principle of uniformitarianism) -uniformitarianism was necessary building block of evolutionism because it sheds doubt that the earth is not only 6000 yrs. Old. Geological processes would have taken more time which has been revealed through fossil records.

The theory of Evolution through Natural selection (how evolution occurred) - The process by which the forms most fit to survive and reproduce in a given environment do so greater numbers than others in the same population; more than survival of the fittest, natural selection is differential reproductive success.

Natural Selection operates when there is Competition- on food, space between members of population Conditions of natural selection: a. Variety-w/o variation, one kind of characteristic could not be favored over the other b. Heredity-offspring inherit traits from their parents in some degree c. Differential reproductive success- more adapted reproduce over generations more than those who poorly adapted

Example of Natural Selection: -giraffe (inheritance of acquired characteristics in contrast to natural selection) -peppered moth -(industrial age) favored the darker moth In order to further understand how natural selection operates, the breakthroughs of sciencediscovery of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), and knowledge of genetics like genetic recombination also adds variety on which natural selection operates.

Gregor Mendel- father of genetics, Studied the inheritance of seven contrasting traits.
Definition: Homozygous-possessing identical alleles of a particular gene Heterozygous-having dissimilar alleles Phenotype- organismsevident trait Genotype-organisms hereditary make-up Dominant-allele that masks another allele in a heterozygote Recessive-genetic trait masked by dominant trait

Independent Assortment and Recombination -provide one of the main ways variety is produced in a given population Independent assortment -Mendels law of; chromosomes are inherited independently of one another (f1 gen.) Recombination-following independent assortment of chromosomes, new arrangements of hereditary units are produced; creates new type

Application: -blood type (explain)

Mendelian Genetics studies the ways in which chromosomes transmit genes across the generations.

Biochemical Genetics
-examines structure, functions and changes in DNA. -how natural selection operates Since, Mendels time scientists have learned about mutations- changes in the DNA molecules in which genes and chromosomes are built. -DNA molecules make up genes and chromosomes which are the basic hereditary units. Chromosomes-basic genetic unit, made up of multiple genes Genes- area in chromosome pairs which determines wholly or partially a particular biological trait

Mendel demonstrated that variety is produced by recombination. However, mutation is more important as source of biochemical forms in which natural selection operates. DNA-held by chemical bonds between four base pairs (A, G, T, C) - triplet codon (translation protein-amino acid)

Biochemical Genetics (Causes of Variety)

1. Cell division (cellular reproduction) a. Mitosis- upon fertilization, zygote grows rapidly -ordinary cell division, DNA molecules copy themselves creating two identical cells out of one. b. Meiosis-special process in which sex cells are produced, (four cells are produced by one, with half the genetic material of the original cell)

2. Crossing over- before fertilization, paired chromosomes intertwine as they duplicate themselves. a1,b1,c1,d1 a2,b2,c2,d2= a1,b1,c2,d2 a2,b2,c1,d1 3.Mutation- most important source of variation -simplest mutation results from substitution of just one base in a triplet by another.

Population Genetics (mechanism of genetic evolution)

1. Natural Selection How natural selection operates? a. Directional Selection- most adaptive will be selected again and again, except for changes in the environment b. Sexual selection- competition fro mates Ex. Colors in birds c. Stabilizing Selection- selective forces can also work to maintain variety, by favoring a balanced polymorphism, frequencies of two or more allele of genes remain constant from generation to generation

2.Random Genetic drift-Change in gene frequency brought results not from natural selection but by chance, most evident in small populations. 3. Gene Flow- exchange of genetic material between populations of the same species through direct or indirect interbreeding.

Human Variation and Adaptation

2 ways on explaining biological diversity: 1. Racial classification -attempt to assign humans to discrete categories based on common ancestry. A race is supposed to reflect shared genetic material inherited by a common ancestor but early scholars used phenotypical traits for racial classification 2.Current explanatory approach explanation or understanding on the differences rather than categorization

Race as discredited concept in Biology

Phenotypical traits for racial classification are skin color, height, hair type, skull form and a lot more. There are three main groups of races called the tripartite scheme: a. Caucasoid b. Mongoloid c. Negroid

Problem with Race

Phenotypical characteristics dont necessarily have a genetic basis When combining physical traits, the number of combinations is very large. Race is a product of colonial empire, embedded with meanings such as slavery, inequality

From categorization to explanation

Explaining skin color: The epidermis manufactures chemical substance called melanin, the primary determinant of skin color. Melanin protects the human body by screening out ultraviolet radiation. Light skin is advantage in cloudy north but disadvantage in the sunny tropics

Human biological Adaptation

1.Genes and Diseases -the prevalence of different diseases favors some genetic traits in which natural selection operates, this changes the gene frequencies among population. Some of these diseases are Malaria and smallpox ( mostly common on blood type A or AB)

2.Facial Features -long noses are adaptive in arid areas because membranes and blood vessels inside the nose moisten the air as it is breathed in. -long noses are also adaptive in cold areas because blood vessels warm the air as it is breathed in (Thomsons nose rule)

Teeth -Native Australians have larger dentition because they their food is accompanied with sand and grit. 3. Size and Body Build Bergmanns rule- the smaller of two bodies similar in shape has more surface area per unit of weight and therefore can dissipate heat more efficiently; hence, large bodies tend to be found in colder areas and small bodies in warmer areas

Allens rule- relative size of protruding body parts tends to increase in warmer areas 4. Lactose Tolerance -milk contains sugar called lactose. The digestion of milk depends on enzyme called lactase. About 90 percent of N. European are lactose tolerant and 80 percent of African population as well. These populations are traditionally herders. For those who were not herders, like Eskimos, Asians, they cant digest lactose.

Humans in zoological taxonomy

Taxon Kingdom Phylum Subphylum Class Infraclass Order Suborder Infraorder Scientific Name Animalia Chordata Vertebrates Mammalia Eutheria Primates Anthropoidea Catarrhini Name(English) Animals Chordates Vertebrates Mammals Eutherians Primates Anthropoids Catarrhines

Superfamily Family
Tribe Genus Species Subspecies

Hominoidea Hominidae
Hominini Homo Homo sapiens Homo sapiens sapiens

Hominoids Hominids
Hominins Humans Recent humans Anatomically modern humans

The Primates
-Human beings belong to the Order primates in the zoological taxonomy 1. Prosimians 2. Anthropoids 2.1 Monkeys a. New World Monkeys b. Old World Monkeys 2.2 Apes i. Gibbons ii. Orangutans iii. Gorillas iv. Chimpanzees v. Bonobos 2.3 Humans

Primate Tendencies
1. Grasping- primates have five-digited feetand hands suited for grasping -bipedal, opposable thumbs 2. Smell to sight-monkeys and apes have excellent stereoscopic and color vision 3. Nose to hand- touch 4. Brain complexity- primates ratio of brain to weight had exceeded most of mammals 5.Parental investment- give birth to only single offspring 6. Sociability

Living Primates
Prosimians Lemurs, Tarsiers Anthropoids N.world monkeys (Platyrrhines) O. world primates (Catarrhines)

Apes &Humans (Hominoids)

 Lesser Apes -Gibbons and Siamangs Greater Apes -Chimpanzees, Orangutans, Gorillas, and Humans Gibbons and Siamangs -most agile -relatively smaller (gibbons, 11 to 15 pounds) in size, their relative siamangs are much larger (<25 pounds) -fruit eaters, leaves and insects -less sexual dimorphism (males and females do not differ in appearance) -fidelity

The Apes And Human (Hominoids)

 Orangutans -sexual dimorphism (males, weighs 2x as females, up to 200 pounds) -fruit eaters, arboreal -solitary lives Gorillas -eat part of plants, fruits are part of their diet -largest among surviving apes (male-450 pounds) -live in groups consisting with dominant male (silverback)

 Chimpanzees -common chimpanzee and the bonobo -most sociable -bonobos are more gracious than common chimpanzees and centered on females (no/less sexual dimorphism) -both are arboreal and terrestial -males weighs a little more than 100 pounds, and females somewhat less -omnivorous

Variation Among Primates

Body Size -diurnal or nocturnal -arboreal or terrestrial - Diet (species that eat mostly leaves are larger) Relative Brain Size Ratio of body size to brain size -fruit eaters have relatively larger brain -fruit (more nutrients, glucose for memory)

 Group size Nocturnal- solitary/ in pairs Diurnal-groups Except for some reasons like scarcity or resources and adaptation to heavy predation

Similarities Between Humans and Non Human Primates

Learning Tools Predation and Hunting Aggression and Resources

Distinctly Human Sharing and Cooperation Mating and Kinship ( marriage and exogamy) -produce allies and lifelong ties

Distinctly Human Traits

Physical Traits -only human consistently walk erect (fully bipedal) -greater length and dexterity of human thumb (power grip, precision grip) -the human brain is large and complex, particularly the cerebral cortex (center of speech and higher mental activities) -human teeth (omnivorous diet)

 Tool making -only humans are habitual toolmakers; they use tools and make another Language -spoken, symbolic language Other traits -only humans have division of labor

The first Hominid

- Ardipithecus ramidus, the first bipedal ape? Australopeticenes (gracile, robust) -Australopithecus Anamensis 4.2 to 3. 9 (m.y.a) -A. Afarensis 3.8 to 3.0 (m.ya), 77lb/35 kg., 430 cc -A. Africanus 3 to 2.?, 79lb/36 kg., 490 cc -A. robustus 2.? To 1.? (m.y.a) 81 kg/37kg, 540 cc -A. boisei 2.6? To 1.2 m.y.a 86/39 kg., 490 cc

The first Hominids

Theory of Bipedalism - To see predators and potential prey while moving on tall grass - Favored travelling on two legged for long distance - Use of tools

Genus Homo
Homo- the genus that contains the modern human species -had a brain one third larger than the autralopithecines - One consequence of brain expansion was the lessening of maturity at birth -childhood dependency made it possible for home bases that encouraged the development of learned and shared behavior (evolution of culture)

 Increased brain size of the Homo was favored by natural selection because they have more motor and conceptual skills to be better toolmakers. Thus, more sophisticated tools developed altogether. -larger brain was favored for hunting, language. Therefore whatever reasons, bigger brains provided humans for an expanded capacity for culture.

Homo habilis- latin able, 600 to 700 cc (630-640 cc) -showed the first evidence of stone tool use and manufacture based on a simple stone chopper called Oldowan made by hammering one stone with another top produce a cutting edge. Oldowan tools- earliest known stone tool technology which was associated by the Homo habilis and named for the location of its discovery, Olduvai Gorge in E. africa

-Homo erectus- looks more human, more sophisticated tools, straighter edges, 1000 cc -tools that can batter, and crush, and pulp coarse vegetation that reduces chewing demands Acheulian- the stone tool technology associated with homo erectus, bifacial implements, -apparently used fire and constructed rudimentary shelters -cooperative hunting (language?)