(ecture )utlines *hapter +2

Physics, 3rd Edition ,a"es S $alker

2007 Pearson Prentice Hall This work is protected by United States copyright laws and is provided solely for the use of instructors in teaching their courses and assessing student learning !isse"ination or sale of any part of this work #including on the $orld $ide $eb% will destroy the integrity of the work and is not per"itted The work and "aterials fro" it should never be "ade available to students e&cept by instructors using the acco"panying te&t in their classes 'll recipients of this work are e&pected to abide by these restrictions and to honor the intended pedagogical purposes and the needs of other instructors who rely on these "aterials

*hapter +2 -ravity

Units of *hapter +2
.ewton/s (aw of Universal -ravitation -ravitational 'ttraction of Spherical 0odies 1epler/s (aws of )rbital 2otion -ravitational Potential 3nergy 3nergy *onservation Tides

+24+ .ewton/s (aw of Universal .ewton/s insight5 -ravitation

The force accelerating an apple downward is the sa"e force that keeps the 2oon in its orbit Hence6 Universal -ravitation

The gravitational force is always attractive6 and points along the line connecting the two "asses5

+24+ .ewton/s (aw of Universal -ravitation

The two forces shown are an action4reaction pair

G is a very s"all nu"ber7 this "eans that the force of gravity is negligible unless there is a very large "ass involved #such as the 3arth%

+24+ .ewton/s (aw of Universal -ravitation

8f an ob9ect is being acted upon by several different gravitational forces6 the net force on it is the vector su" of the individual forces This is called the principle of superposition

+242 -ravitational 'ttraction of Spherical 0odies

-ravitational force between a point "ass and a sphere5 the force is the sa"e as if all the "ass of the sphere were concentrated at its center

+242 -ravitational 'ttraction of Spherical 0odies

$hat about the gravitational force on ob9ects at the surface of the 3arth: The center of the 3arth is one 3arth radius away6 so this is the distance we use5

Therefore6

+242 -ravitational 'ttraction of Spherical 0odies

The acceleration of gravity decreases slowly with altitude5

+242 -ravitational 'ttraction of Spherical 0odies

)nce the altitude beco"es co"parable to the radius of the 3arth6 the decrease in the acceleration of gravity is "uch larger5

+242 -ravitational 'ttraction of Spherical 0odies

The *avendish e&peri"ent allows us to "easure the universal gravitation constant5

+242 -ravitational 'ttraction of Spherical 0odies

3ven though the gravitational force is very s"all6 the "irror allows "easure"ent of tiny deflections

2easuring G also allowed the "ass of the 3arth to be calculated6 as the local acceleration of gravity and the radius of the 3arth were known

+24; 1epler/s (aws of )rbital 2otion

,ohannes 1epler "ade detailed studies of the apparent "otions of the planets over "any years6 and was able to for"ulate three e"pirical laws5 + Planets follow elliptical orbits6 with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse

+24; 1epler/s (aws of )rbital 2otion

2 's a planet "oves in its orbit6 it sweeps out an e<ual a"ount of area in an e<ual a"ount of ti"e

+24; 1epler/s (aws of )rbital 2otion

; The period6 T6 of a planet increases as its "ean distance fro" the Sun6 r6 raised to the ;=2 power

This can be shown to be a conse<uence of the inverse s<uare for" of the gravitational force

+24; 1epler/s (aws of )rbital 2otion

' geosynchronous satellite is one whose orbital period is e<ual to one day 8f such a satellite is orbiting above the e<uator6 it will be in a fi&ed position with respect to the ground These satellites are used for co""unications and and weather forecasting

+24; 1epler/s (aws of )rbital 2otion

-PS satellites are not in geosynchronous orbits7 their orbit period is +2 hours Triangulation of signals fro" several satellites allows precise location of ob9ects on 3arth

+24; 1epler/s (aws of )rbital 2otion

1epler/s laws also give us an insight into possible orbital "aneuvers

+24> -ravitational Potential 3nergy

-ravitational potential energy of an ob9ect of "ass m a distance r fro" the 3arth/s center5

+24> -ravitational Potential 3nergy

?ery close to the 3arth/s surface6 the gravitational potential increases linearly with altitude5

-ravitational potential energy6 9ust like all other for"s of energy6 is a scalar 8t therefore has no co"ponents7 9ust a sign

+24@ 3nergy *onservation

Total "echanical energy of an ob9ect of "ass m a distance r fro" the center of the 3arth5

This confir"s what we already know A as an ob9ect approaches the 3arth6 it "oves faster and faster

+24@ 3nergy *onservation

+24@ 3nergy *onservation

'nother way of visualiBing the gravitational potential well5

+24@ 3nergy *onservation

3scape speed5 the initial upward speed a pro9ectile "ust have in order to escape fro" the 3arth/s gravity

+24@ 3nergy *onservation

Speed of a pro9ectile as it leaves the 3arth6 for various launch speeds

+24@ 3nergy *onservation

0lack holes5 8f an ob9ect is sufficiently "assive and sufficiently s"all6 the escape speed will e<ual or e&ceed the speed of light A light itself will not be able to escape the surface This is a black hole

+24@ 3nergy *onservation

(ight will be bent by any gravitational field7 this can be seen when we view a distant gala&y beyond a closer gala&y cluster This is called gravitational lensing6 and "any e&a"ples have been found

+24C Tides
Usually we can treat planets6 "oons6 and stars as though they were point ob9ects6 but in fact they are not $hen two large ob9ects e&ert gravitational forces on each other6 the force on the near side is larger than the force on the far side6 because the near side is closer to the other ob9ect This difference in gravitational force across an ob9ect due to its siBe is called a tidal force

+24C Tides
This figure illustrates a general tidal force on the left6 and the result of lunar tidal forces on the 3arth on the right

+24C Tides
Tidal forces can result in orbital locking6 where the "oon always has the sa"e face towards the planet A as does 3arth/s 2oon

8f a "oon gets too close to a large planet6 the tidal forces can be strong enough to tear the "oon apart This occurs inside the Doche li"it7 closer to the planet we have rings6 not "oons

Su""ary of *hapter +2
Eorce of gravity between two point "asses5

G is the universal gravitational constant5

8n calculating gravitational forces6 spherically sy""etric bodies can be replaced by point "asses

Su""ary of *hapter +2
'cceleration of gravity5

+ 2 ;

2ass of the 3arth5 1epler/s laws5 Planetary orbits are ellipses6 Sun at one focus Planets sweep out e<ual area in e<ual ti"e S<uare of orbital period is proportional to cube of distance fro" Sun

Su""ary of *hapter +2
)rbital period5

-ravitational potential energy5

U is a scalar6 and goes to Bero as the "asses beco"e infinitely far apart

Su""ary of *hapter +2
Total "echanical energy5

3scape speed5

Tidal forces are due to the variations in gravitational force across an e&tended body