UNIT - 1

SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION

SOIL EXPLORATION

The field and laboratory studies carried out for obtaining the necessary information about the surface and subsurface features of the proposed area including the position of ground water table, are termed as soil exploration or site investigation.

IMPORTANCE OF EXPLORATION PROGRAM

Before construction of any civil engineering work a thorough investigation of the site is essential. Site investigations constitute an essential and important engineering program which, while guiding in assessing the general suitability of the site for the proposed works, enables the engineer to prepare an adequate and economic design and to foresee and provide against difficulties that may arise during the construction phase. Site investigations are equally necessary in reporting upon the safety or causes of failures of existing works.

OBJECTIVES OF SOIL EXPLORATION PROGRAM

To establish the groundwater levels To select the type and depth of foundation for proposed structure To determine the bearing capacity of the site To estimate the probable maximum and differential settlements To select suitable construction techniques To determine soil properties required for design

To predict and to solve potential foundation problems

To investigate the safety of existing structures and to suggest the remedial measures

STAGES IN SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATION

Phase I.

Collection of available information such as a site plan, type, size, and importance of the structure, loading conditions, previous geotechnical reports, newspaper clippings etc. Preliminary reconnaissance or a site visit : Here visual inspection is done to gather information on topography, vegetation, water marks, ground water level, and type of construction nearby.

Phase II.

STAGES IN SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATION

Phase III.

Detailed soil exploration : Here we make a detailed planning for soil exploration in the form trial pits or borings. The details of the soils encountered, the type of field tests adopted and the type of sampling done, presence of water table if met with are recorded. The soil samples are properly labelled and sent to laboratory for evaluation of their physical and engineering properties.

Phase IV.

Report: The report must contain a clear description of the soils at the site, methods of exploration, soil profile, test methods and results, and the location of the groundwater. This should include information on soil and groundwater condition that may be troublesome during construction.

METHODS OF EXPLORATION
1.

OPEN EXCAVATIONS Pits and trenches

Cost increases rapidly with depth Considered suitable for shallow depths (upto 3m)

2.

BORING Auger boring:

Hand augers are used in boring holes about 15 20 cm in diameter and upto a depth of 3 6 m in soft soils. A post hole auger is used for collecting soil samples from already driven holes. Mechanical augers are used for making holes in hard strata to a greater depth (upto 12m)

METHODS OF EXPLORATION

Auger borings are particularly useful for subsurface investigations of highways, railways etc, where the depth of exploration is small. Rapid and economical. Soil samples are highly disturbed. First , a casing about 2 - 3 m long is driven. Then, a hollow drill rod with a chisel shaped chopping bit at its bottom is inserted Water is pumped down the hollow drill rod, which emerges as a strong jet through a small opening of the chopping bit The hole is advanced by a combination of chopping action and jetting action. The wash water is collected in a tub.

Wash boring:

METHODS OF EXPLORATION

Wash samples are of little practical use Once a hole has been drilled upto a desired depth, a sampler is inserted to obtain soil samples. It cannot be used effectively in hard soils, rocks and soils containing boulders. It is not suitable for taking good quality undisturbed soil samples above ground water table as the wash water enters the strata and causes an increase in water content. Bore hole is advanced by rotating a hollow drill rod which has a cutting bit at its lower end. The cutting bit shears off chips of the material penetrated. A drilling fluid under pressure is introduced through the drill rod which carries the cuttings from the bottom of the hole. The drilling fluid also cools the drilling bit.

Rotary drilling:

METHODS OF EXPLORATION

When the soil sample is required to be taken the drilling rod is raised and the drilling bit is replaced by a sampler. This method can be used in clay, sand etc This method is not suitable for materials containing large % of gravel size particles. These particles start rotating beneath the drill rod and it becomes difficult to advance the hole. It is used for making holes in rocks, boulders and other hard strata. A heavy chisel is alternatively lifted and dropped in a vertical hole. If the point where the chisel strikes is above the water table, water is added to the hole. Water forms a slurry with the pulverised material, which is removed at intervals. The material at the bottom of the hole is disturbed by the heavy blows of the chisel and it is not possible to get good quality undisturbed samples.

Percussion drilling:

TYPES OF SOIL SAMPLES

Soil samples in general can be classified as disturbed samples and undisturbed samples. Disturbed samples are those in which the natural soil structure gets modified or destroyed during the sampling operation. With suitable precautions the natural moisture content and the proportion of mineral constituents can be preserved. These are called representative samples. Where, in addition to alteration in the original soil structure, soil from other layers get mixed up or the mineral constituents get altered, the samples are called non - representative samples. Representative samples are used for identification tests but non representative samples are virtually of no use. Samples that are obtained through wash boring, percussion drilling etc are non representative samples.

TYPES OF SOIL SAMPLES

Undisturbed samples are those where the original soil structure is preserved and the material properties have not undergone any alteration or modification. Perfectly undisturbed samples are practically impossible to obtain. Undisturbed soil samples can be used for laboratory tests such as shear strength and consolidation tests.

SAMPLE DISTURBANCE

The disturbance of soil depends mainly upon the following design features:

Area ratio

For obtaining good quality undisturbed samples in soft clays the area ratio should be less than or equal to 10%. Inside clearance

For an undisturbed sample the inside clearance should be between 0.5 and 3%

SAMPLE DISTURBANCE

Outside clearance

Normally it lies between 0 2% Recovery ratio

Recovery ratio should be equal to 96 98% for getting a satisfactory undisturbed sample

SAMPLE DISTURBANCE

Inside wall friction Friction on the side walls of the sampling tube causes disturbances to the soil sample. The inside surface of the sampler is usually smeared with oil before use to reduce friction. Design of non return valve Non return valve on the sampler should have an orifice of large area to allow air, water or slurry to escape quickly when the sampler is driven. It should immediately close when the sampler is withdrawn. Method of applying force For obtaining undisturbed soil samples, the sampler should be pushed and not driven.

SOIL SAMPLERS

Split spoon sampler

Can be used to obtain disturbed but representative soil samples. It consists of :

A driving shoe at the bottom A steel tube which can be split longitudinally Coupling head on top

The sampler is attached to a drill rod and the sample is collected by forcing the sampler into the soil by repeated blows of a drop hammer. The sampler is then withdrawn and the split tube is separated after removing the shoe and the coupling. The sample is placed in a container sealed and transported to laboratory .

SOIL SAMPLERS

Shelby tube sampler

They are thin walled tube samplers made of seamless steel. The bottom of the tube is sharpened and beveled, which acts as a cutting edge. The sampler which is attached to the drill rod is pushed into the soil by a continuous rapid motion without impact or twisting. At least 5 minutes after pushing the tube into its final position, the tube is turned 2 revolutions to shear the sample off at the bottom before it is withdrawn. The tube is taken out and its ends are sealed before transportation. Good quality undisturbed samples can be obtained.

SOIL SAMPLERS

Piston sampler

They are used to get high quality undisturbed samples. It consists of a thin walled tube with a piston inside. After the sampler is lowered to the desired depth the piston is prevented from moving further and the thin tube sampler is pushed past the piston to obtain the sample. The piston remains in close contact with the top of the sample. The presence of the piston prevents rapid squeezing of the soft soils into the tube and reduces disturbance of the soil sample.

FIELD TESTS

Standard penetration test (SPT)

Most commonly used field test. When the bore hole has been drilled to a desired depth, the drilling tools are removed and the split spoon sampler is lowered to the bottom of the hole. The sampler is driven into the soil by a drop hammer of 63.5 kg mass falling through a height of 750mm at the rate of 30 blows per minute. The no: of blows required to drive 150mm of sample is counted. The sampler is further driven by 150mm and the no: of blows counted. Once again for the third time, sampler is driven by 150mm and the no: of blows recorded. The no: of blows for the first 150mm penetration is disregarded as the bottom of the bore hole is likely to be disturbed by the drilling process. The no: of blows recorded for the last two 150mm intervals are added to give the standard penetration no: (N) If the no: of blows exceeds 50 for 150mm drive, it is taken as refusal and the test is discontinued.

FIELD TESTS
Corrections for standard penetration no: (N) 1. Overburden pressure correction:

In granular soils the overburden pressure affects the penetration resistance. If two granular soils having same relative density but having different confining pressures are tested, the one with higher confining pressure gives higher N values. To account for this N values recorded from the field (NR)are corrected to a standard effective overburden pressure
The correction factor (CN) given by Peck, Hanson and Thornburn is given by:

FIELD TESTS
2.

Dilatancy correction In saturated fine sands and silts, the pore pressure developed is not easily dissipated. The pore pressure increases the resistance of the soil and hence the penetration no: (N) Dilatancy correction is to be applied if the NC obtained after overburden pressure correction exceeds 15. The correction proposed by Terzaghi and Peck is given by:

FIELD TESTS

Static cone penetration test (CPT)

It is widely used in soft clays and fine to medium sand deposits. 0 2 A cone having an apex angle of 60 and a base area of 10cm is used. Position 1: Cone and friction jacket are stationary. Position 2: Cone is pushed into the soil to a depth a at a rate of 20mm/s. The tip resistance qc called the cone or point resistance = Qc/Ac Qc = applied force ; Ac = base area of the cone Position 3: Sounding rod is pushed to depth b. This has the effect of pushing both the cone and the friction jacket together. The total force required can be noted (Qt). The force required to push friction jacket alone, Qf = Qt Qc . The side or skin friction fs = Qf / Af Af = surface area of the friction jacket Position 4: The outside mantle tube is pushed to a distance of (a+b), bringing the cone and the friction jacket to position 1

FIELD TESTS

Dynamic cone penetration test (DCPT)

The cone with an apex angle of 600 is attached to drill rods and is driven into the soil by means of a drop hammer of 63.5 kg, falling freely from a height of 750mm. The blow count for every 100 mm penetration is recorded. The no: of blows required for 300mm penetration is known as dynamic cone resistance Ncd . This test gives a continuous record of Ncd values with depth It helps to identify the uniformity or variability of soil profile and reveals local soft pockets if any. It can establish the position of rock stratum. The test is much less expensive and quicker than SPT

FIELD TESTS

Geophysical methods of exploration

Seismic refraction method:

Shock waves are created by hammer blows at point P The radiating shock waves are picked up by geophones where the time of travel gets recorded. Some waves travel directly along the ground surface direct or preliminary waves Some waves travel downward to the lower layer and get refracted at the interface of two layers If the underlying layer is denser, the refracted waves travel much faster : V3>V2>V1 As the distance between the point P and the geophone increases, the refracted waves are able to reach the geophone earlier than direct waves. The waves that reach earliest to each geophone is shown in the fig.

FIELD TESTS

For determination of thickness of different layers a distance time graph is plotted

Upto a certain distance X1, the direct waves in layer 1 reach first. X1 represents critical distance. The empirical equation for the depth H1 is given as:

FIELD TESTS

Electrical resistivity method:

The electrical resistivity method is based on the measurement and recording of changes in the mean resistivity.

Mean resistivity is given by:

FIELD TESTS

The depth of exploration is roughly proportional to the electrode spacing. For knowing the horizontal changes in the subsoil, the electrodes kept at constant spacing are moved as a group along the line of test - Resistivity mapping For studying the vertical changes in the soil stratum, the electrode system is expanded, about a fixed point by increasing the spacing gradually Resistivity sounding

STABILIZATION OF BORE HOLES

Steel casing

A steel casing can be used for bore hole support. Water if used as a drilling fluid is circulated to remove the cuttings from the bottom of the hole. Water exerts a thrust downwards and laterally and thereby counteracts soil and pore water pressure. Water alone cannot be used to prevent caving in of soft and cohessionless soils but it can be used in rock and stiff cohesive soils Bentonite mud which is a thin mixture of water and bentonite clay is used to create a higher density suspension. It is more viscous than water.

Water

Drilling mud

NO: AND DEPTH OF BORING FOR VARIOUS CIVIL ENGINEERING STRUCTURES

Spacing of borings:

It depends mainly on the variation of the strata in the horizontal direction. According to IS 1892; Code of practice for subsurface investigation,

For a small building, one bore hole at the centre can give necessary data. For a building covering not more than 4000 sq m, one bore hole at each corner and one at centre is adequate. For a large project, generally a grid of 50m spacing should be used with a combination of bore holes and sounding tests.

NO: AND DEPTH OF BORING FOR VARIOUS CIVIL ENGINEERING STRUCTURES

Depth of investigation:

The depth upto which the stress increment due to the superimposed loads can produce significant settlement and shear stresses is known as significant depth.
The depth of exploration should be atleast equal to the significant depth.

Beyond significant depth the vertical stresses due to the proposed structure is 10% of the original effective stress at the point before the structure is constructed.

NO: AND DEPTH OF BORING FOR VARIOUS CIVIL ENGINEERING STRUCTURES

Atleast one bore hole should be taken to deeper stratum, probably upto bedrock if practicable. Borings should penetrate atleast 3m into the rock. Other borings may be taken upto significant stress level. Borings must penetrate below any fills or very soft deposits below the proposed structure. The minimum depth of boreholes should be 6m unless bedrock or very dense material is encountered.

NO: AND DEPTH OF BORING FOR VARIOUS CIVIL ENGINEERING STRUCTURES

Building foundation:

For footings, the min depth of exploration is given by:

Isolated or spread footings : D = 1.5B ; A4B Adjacent footings:- D = 1.5L ; A<2B Adjacent rows of footings:- D = 4.5B; A2B D = 3B; A>2B D = 1.5B; A>4B A = spacing between footings B = width of footing L = Length of footings

For pile foundations, the depth of exploration should be atleast equal to 1.5 times the width of the structure, unless a good bearing stratum is encountered at a higher level.

NO: AND DEPTH OF BORING FOR VARIOUS CIVIL ENGINEERING STRUCTURES

Roads, cuts and fills:

Roads

Exploration is carried out along the centre line of the road and along the proposed ditch lines. The spacing should be about 100m to begin with, which may be reduced to 30m or less if frequent changes in soil profile are found. All borings should be carried out to a min depth of 1m below the existing ground level. Borings should be made to a min depth of 1m below the formation level. Deep cuts borings should be carried below the deepest part of the proposed cut equal to its bottom width or depth of the cut, whichever is smaller.

Cuts

NO: AND DEPTH OF BORING FOR VARIOUS CIVIL ENGINEERING STRUCTURES

Fills

The min depth of borings below the ground level should be 2m or equal to the height of the fill above the ground, whichever is greater.

Dam sites:

Preliminary exploration may be carried out by drilling four or five holes in a line at right angles to the direction of flow of water and across one or both abutments. A few holes, widely scattered, are also required in the bottom of the reservoir on the upstream side of the dam. Detailed exploration is carried out by drilling additional holes in the valley floor, on the abutments and other connected structures. The depth of exploration should ordinarily reach bedrock. The min depth of preliminary exploration is equal to 1.5 times the bottom width for earth dam and equal to twice the height from stream bed to crest for concrete dams having height < 30m.

NO: AND DEPTH OF BORING FOR VARIOUS CIVIL ENGINEERING STRUCTURES

Borrow areas:

Single bore holes or pits are located in likely locations to verify the existence of materials of required characteristics. On finding a potential source supplementary holes are located. When a comparatively large quantities of materials are required, say for the body of an earth dam, the area should be covered with bore holes and test pits on a grid system so that subsurface profile may be plotted and quantities calculated. It is better to start with a wide spacing of 150 to 300m and put additional holes in between as the variability of the deposit may require. The depth of exploration should be decided by convenience of excavation and the thickness of the available suitable materials.

BORING LOG

During soil exploration all the details are recorded and presented in a boring log. A typical boring log consists of the following details:

The soil profile Ground water level Termination level of the bore hole The depth at which samples were taken or insitu tests were performed The type of soil samples N-values at different depths Results of important lab tests

SOIL EXPLORATION REPORT

Any soil investigation report should consist of the following details: Scope of investigation General description of the proposed structure Drainage conditions of the site Details of boring Description of sub soil conditions determined from samples collected. Ground water table Details of foundation recommendations Any anticipated construction problems Limitations of investigation.

SOIL EXPLORATION REPORT

The following graphic presentations should also be attached: Site location map Location of borings Boring logs Laboratory test results etc..