ELECTRONIC AMPLIFIERS

Vishnu Sharma
V. Tarun Tej
Application o Electronic Ampliiers
in Instrumentation S!stems

All present day instrumentation systems require

electronic amplifiers primarily as signal
conditioning elements.

Amplifiers might also be used as buffer and

isolation amplifiers and should be able to respond
only to desires signals in the presence of unwanted
signals / noise.
Transistors

In analo" circuits# transistors are use$ as electronic

ampliiers.

T%o main cate"ories o transistors&

'ipolar junction transistors ()*Ts+ an$

Metal o,i$e semicon$uctor iel$ eect transistors (MOSFETs+.

Transistors are - terminal $e.ices(one control terminal+.

)*Ts are current controlle$ $e.ices %here as FETs are

.olta"e controlle$.

The ph!sics o /transistor action/ is 0uite $ierent or the

)*T an$ FET.

In $i"ital circuits the! unction as electronic s%itches#

inclu$in" lo"ic "ates# ran$om access memor! (RAM+#
an$ microprocessors.
)ipolar *unction Transistors
()*T+

A bipolar transistor essentially

consists of a pair of PN Junction
diodes that are joined back-to-back.

There are therefore two kinds of

BJT, the NPN and PNP varieties.

The three layers of the device are

conventionally called the
Collectorcollects!, Basecontrols!,
and Emittere"its "ajority
carriers!.
Circuit S!m'ols
Terminals 1 Operations

Three terminals&

)ase ()+& .er! thin an$ li"htl! $ope$ central re"ion (little
recom'ination+.

Emitter (E+ an$ collector (C+ are t%o outer re"ions

san$%ichin" ).

Normal operation (linear or acti.e re"ion+&

)2E junction or%ar$ 'iase$3 )2C junction re.erse 'iase$.

The emitter emits (injects+ majorit! char"e into 'ase re"ion

an$ 'ecause the 'ase .er! thin# most %ill ultimatel! reach
the collector.

The emitter is hi"hl! $ope$ %hile the collector is li"htl!

$ope$.

The collector is usuall! at hi"her .olta"e than the emitter.

4ierent coni"urations

)*Ts can 'e use$ in - $ierent

coni"urations C)(common 'ase+#
CE(common emitter+#CC(common
collector+ $epen$in" upon the "roun$e$
or common terminal.

In each coni"uration )*T has 5 t!pes o

characteristics input an$ output.

4urin" input characteristics output .olta"e

is constant an$ or output input current is
constant
Circuit Coni"uration
I - V characteristics are used to explain the operation of
transistors.
utput I-V characteristics cur!es
Input I-V characteristics
I-V Characteristics (input & output)
Operation Mo$e
Terminals 1 Operations
Operation Mo$e
Operation Mo$e

Acti.e&

Most importance mo$e# e.". or ampliier operation.

The re"ion %here current cur.es are practicall! lat.

Saturation&

)arrier potential o the junctions cancel each other out

causin" a .irtual short.

I$eal transistor 'eha.es li6e a close$ s%itch.

Cuto&

Current re$uce$ to 7ero

I$eal transistor 'eha.es li6e an open s%itch.

Current Flo%

There are three $ierent currents in transistors &

collector current IC# 'ase current IB an$ emitter current
IE.

Since the emitter is the source o the electrons# it has

the lar"est o the three currents.

The collector current is sli"htl! lo%er than the emitter

current# %hile the 'ase current is usuall! .er! small.

The relationship is e,presse$ as ollo%s&

IE = IB +
IC

The relationship 'et%een the collector current

an$ the 'ase current is e,presse$ in the
ollo%in" ormula

= IC / IB

Current gain(HFE)

The ratio 'et%een collector current an$ emitter

current is reerre$ as 8 (alpha+ an$ is sho%n in
the ollo%in" relationship &

= IC/IE
DC Gain

Emitter .olta"e#VE

)ase .olta"e#V)

Collector .olta"e#VC

Collector emitter
.olta"e#VCE

)ase emitter
.olta"e#V)E

Collector )ase
.olta"e#VC)

4C suppl!
.olta"e#VCC
VC
C
VC
E
VB
E
V
C
V
B
VE
RB
R
C
"
C
E
Votages in !ransistor Circuit

A loa$ line is a line

$ra%n o.er the
collector cur.es to
sho% each an$
e.er! possi'le
operatin" point o
a transistor.

Loa$ line is $ra%n

rom c6t.e0. o Iout
.s Vout.
L
o
a
d

l
i
n
e
"oa# "ine
92Point

The point at %hich

the 'ase(input+
current intersects
the loa$ line is
reerre$ to as the
operatin" point or
the 0uiescent point.
Q
Common emitter ampliier circuit %ith AC
input si"nal

One actor can aect the I) is AC input si"nal.

AC input si"nal must not too 'i" so that can control the
I).
$% &
'
(V
%()
'()
*()
&()
$(()
&
$(
%(
$+
+
$(
*
'
%
VC (V)
IC(,))

# point is at I" $ %&'A( Ic $

%mA( Vc $ )V.

If I" is between *&'A and

)&'A( while Ic is between *mA
and )mA

+o Vc is between *V and ,-V.

Vc is output !oltage for the

amplifier circuit( Vo.
Cont:

I input si"nal is too 'i"# It %ill aect the I).

I) %ill 'ecome 'i"# ollo%e$ '! Ic an$ Vc.

Ic an$ Vc %ill o.er the saturation point an$ %ill

cut the si"nal.

;hen this happen# there is a $istortion to the

output si"nal.

I there is a $istortion to the output si"nal# the

ampliier is not eicient.
-
<=Vp <5Vp
VC9
5>V
VC(alih+
#
?aris )e'an a.t
?aris )e'an a.u
-@ 5= 5@ <= <@ =
-.=
IC(mA+
-
Titi629
5.=
5
<.=
<
@.=
VC (V+
VC(ALIA+(AB+ 2 VC9 C 5>V
D <=V
C <5Vp
VC9 D @ C <=V D @ C <=Vp
5EVp2p
-@Vp2p
Ma,imum output .olta"e %ithout
$istortion#Vo

Is output .olta"e that oscillate$ %ithin the

operation point s!mmetricall! an$ no
$istortion.
Ma,imum input si"nal
Can 'e $etermine rom e0uation A. C rL F re
Bse the A. to $etermine ma,imum input .olta"e#
Vi.

A. C VoFVi# so Vi C VoFA..
It can $eine as un$istorte$ ma,imum input
si"nal 'ecause it has un$istorte$ ma,imum
output si"nal.
Lar"e Si"nal Mo$el(npn+

Common emitter

In la"er si"nal mo$e %e represent or%ar$

'ias as a $io$e an$ output current as a
$epen$ent current source.
Small Si"nal mo$el

There are t%o t!pes o small si"nal mo$el

an$ 'oth "i.e the same result.

Pi mo$el

T mo$el
Trans con$uctance ("m+

It is the ratio o output current to input

.olta"e.

icF.'e C IcFVT C "m(can 'e i,e$+

RpiCGicF.'e CGF"m

Re C.'eFieC 8F"m
Steps o sol.in"

Fin$ out the $c operatin" point Ic#H#VT etc.

Fin$ the mo$el parameters rI# re#"m

4ra% ac small si"nal mo$el# replace transistor

%ith e0ui.alent pi or T.
VCC = VRB +
VBE
VRB = VCC - VBE
IB = VCC -VBE
RB
IC = IB
VCC = VCE +
VRC
VCE = VCC - ICRC
VCE
R
B
R
C
VC
C
IB
I
C
IE

It consists only of a fixed bias

resistor and load resistor.
VBE
Fixed Base Bias Circuit (Simple Bias
Circuit and Formula
VCE
R!
R"
VCC
RC
RE
VBE
I
C
I
B
IE
It offers the best resilience against
changes in temperature and de!ice
characteristics and by far more stabili.ed.
/, and /- form a potential di!ider( which
will fix the base potential of the transistor.
0he current is usually set at ,& times
greater than the base current required by
the transistor
0he base emitter !oltage drop is
approximated as &.1!olt. 0here will also
be a !oltage drop across the emitter
resistor( /2( this is generally set to about
,&3 of the supply !oltage.
If I4 increases( then so will I2.

-otentia Di.i#er Bias Circuit
VCC = IR" + IR!
IB = VCC
R" + R!
VB =
R!
R" + R!
VC
C
VRE = VB - VBE
IE = VRE# RE
IB can be ignored if the !alue is too small
IE = IB +
IC
VCE = VCC $VRC -
VRE
VC = VCE +
VRE
For,ua
Volta"e ?ain# A.

A. C VoFVi C rL F re
;here re C 5=mVF IE
AC loa$line e,ists %hen the loa$ or AC .olta"e
output is $ierent %ith the loa$ or 4C .olta"e
output.
Classiication o Ampliier

There are E classes o ampliier.

Class A

Class )

Class A)

Class C
Class A ampliier
Cass ) ),pi/ier

The most common an$ simplest orm o po%er

ampliier that uses the s%itchin" transistor in the
stan$ar$ common emitter circuit coni"uration as
seen pre.iousl!.

The transistor is al%a!s 'iase$ /ON/ so that it

con$ucts $urin" one complete c!cle o the input
si"nal %a.eorm pro$ucin" minimum $istortion an$
ma,imum amplitu$e to the output.

Is the i$eal operatin" mo$e# 'ecause there

can 'e no crosso.er or s%itch2o $istortion
to the output %a.eorm e.en $urin" the
ne"ati.e hal o the c!cle.

Class A po%er ampliier output sta"es ma!

use a sin"le po%er transistor or pairs o
transistors connecte$ to"ether to share the
hi"h loa$ current.
Class A ampliier
Class ) ampliier

Class2) ampliiers onl! ampli! hal o the input

%a.e c!cle# thus creatin" a lar"e amount o
$istortion# 'ut their eicienc! is "reatl! impro.e$
an$ is much 'etter than class A.

Class ) has a ma,imum theoretical eicienc! o

JFE. (i.e. >K.=L+ This is 'ecause the ampli!in"
element is s%itche$ o alto"ether hal o the time#
an$ so cannot $issipate po%er.
Class )

A practical circuit usin" class2) elements is

the pushDpull sta"e# such as the .er!
simpliie$ complementar! pair
arran"ement .

Complementar! or 0uasi2complementar!
$e.ices are each use$ or ampli!in" the
opposite hal.es o the input si"nal# %hich is
then recom'ine$ at the output.
Class ) D Push Pull

This arran"ement "i.es e,cellent

eicienc!# 'ut can suer rom the
$ra%'ac6 that there is a small mismatch in
the cross2o.er re"ion D at the /joins/
'et%een the t%o hal.es o the si"nal# as
one output $e.ice has to ta6e o.er
suppl!in" po%er e,actl! as the other
inishes. This is calle$ crosso.er $istortion
Class A) ampliier

In class2A) operation# each $e.ice operates the same

%a! as in class ) o.er hal the %a.eorm# 'ut also
con$ucts a small amount on the other hal.

As a result# the re"ion %here 'oth $e.ices

simultaneousl! are nearl! o (the /$ea$ 7one/+ is
re$uce$. The result is that %hen the %a.eorms rom
the t%o $e.ices are com'ine$# the crosso.er is
"reatl! minimise$ or eliminate$ alto"ether.
Class A) ampliier
Class C ampliier

Collector current lo%s or less than one hal

c!cle o the input si"nal.

)! re.erse 'iasin" the emitter2'ase

junction# %hich sets the $c operatin" point
'elo% cut o an$ allo%s onl! the portion o
the input si"nal that o.ercomes the re.erse
'ias to cause collector current lo%.
Class C ampliier
Application o each class.

Class A D amps soun$ the 'est# cost the most#

an$ are the least practical. The! %aste po%er
an$ return .er! clean si"nals.

Class ) 2 operate$ ampliier is use$ e,tensi.el!

or au$io ampliiers that re0uire hi"h2po%er
outputs. It is also use$ as the $ri.er2 an$ po%er2
ampliier sta"es o transmitters.
Cont:

Class C 2 operate$ ampliier is use$ as a

ra$io2re0uenc! ampliier in transmitters.

Class A) 2 operate$ ampliier is commonl!

use$ as a push2pull ampliier to o.ercome
a si$e eect o class ) operation calle$
crosso.er $istortion
)iasin" Techni0ues o common emitter
transistor.

)ipolar transistor ampliiers must 'e properl!

'iase$ to operate correctl!.

There are &

2 'ase 'iase$ %ith emitter ee$'ac6

techni0ue.

2 'iase$ .olta"e $i.i$er techni0ue

)ase 'iase$
(emitter ee$'ac6 techni0ue+
Vin
)ase 'iase$
(emitter ee$'ac6 techni0ue+
5ig ,
5ig -
4ircuit in 5ig , is
unstable
4ircuit in 5ig - is stable
0ransistors are commonly used for 6
1. Amplifier circuit 2. Switching circuit
)ppication
FET ( Fiel$ Eect Transistor+
Unipolar device i. e. operation depends on only one type of charge
carriers (h or e)
1. Voltage controlled Device (gate voltage controls drain
current)
2. Very high input impedance (109-1012 )
. !ource and drain are interchangea"le in most #o$-fre%uency
applications
&. #o$ Voltage #o$ 'urrent (peration is possi"le (#o$-po$er
consumption)
). #ess *oisy as 'ompared to +,-
.. *o minority carrier storage (-urn off is faster)
/. !elf limiting device
0. Very small in si1e2 occupies very small space in 3's
9. #o$ voltage lo$ current operation is possi"le in 4(!56-!
10. 7ero temperature drift of out put is possi"le.
5e$ important advantages of 56- over conventional -ransistors
-ypes of 5ield 6ffect -ransistors
(-he 'lassification)

,56-
4(!56-
n-'hannel ,56-
p-'hannel ,56-
n-'hannel
64(!56-
p-'hannel
64(!56-
6nhancement
4(!56-
Depletion
4(!56-
n-'hannel
D4(!56-
p-'hannel
D4(!56-
520
Figure: n-Channel JFET.
0he 7unction 5ield 2ffect 0ransistor 875209
$ate
%rain
&ource
&'(B)*&
n-channel J+,T
$ate
%rain
&ource
n-channel J+,T
)ffset--ate sy"bol
$ate
%rain
&ource
p-channel J+,T
Figure: n-Channel JFET and Biasing Circuit.
"iasing the 7520
Figure: The nonconductive depletion region becomes broader with increased reverse bias.
(Note: The two gate regions of each FET are connected to each other.)
(peration of ,56- at Various 8ate +ias 9otentials
Figure: Circuit for drain characteristics of the n-channel JFET and its Drain characteristics.
Non-saturation (Ohmic) Region:
The drain current is given by
Where, IDSS is the short circuit drain current, VP is the pinch off voltage
Output or Drain (VD-ID) Characteristics of n-JFET
Saturation (or Pinchoff) Region:
1
1
1
]
1

,
_

2
2
2
2
DS
DS P GS
P
DSS
DS
V
V V V
V
I
I
1
1
]
1

,
_

2
2
P GS
P
DSS
DS
V V
V
I
I
2
1 and

,
_

P
GS
DSS DS
V
V
I I

,
_

<
P GS DS
V V V

,
_

P GS DS
V V V
Figure: n-Channel FET for vGS = 0.
Simple Operation and Break down of n-Channel JFET
Figure: If vDG exceeds the breakdown voltage VB, drain current increases rapidly.
Break Down Region
*-'hannel ,56- 'haracteristics and +rea:do$n
Figure: Typical drain characteristics of an n-channel JFET.
VD-ID Characteristics of EMOS FET
Saturation or Pinch
off Reg.
Locus of pts where
( )
P GS DS
V V V
Figure: Transfer (or Mutual) Characteristics of n-Channel JFET
IDS
S
V8! (off);V9
-ransfer (4utual) 'haracteristics of n-'hannel ,56-
2
1

,
_

P
GS
DSS DS
V
V
I I
,56- -ransfer 'urve
-his graph sho$s the value of ID for a given
value of V8!
Biasing Circuits used for JFET

Fi,e$ 'ias circuit

Sel 'ias circuit

Potential 4i.i$er 'ias circuit

*FET (n2channel+ )iasin"
Circuits
For Self Bias Circuit
For Fixed Bias Circuit
<pplying =V# to gate circuit $e get
and
>here2 Vp;V8!-off ? 3D!! is !hort c:t.
3D!
2
1

,
_

P
GS
DSS DS
V
V
I I
# , +
G GS GS G G GG
I Fixed V V R I V
D DS DD DS
P
GS
DSS DS
R I V V
V
V
I I

,
_

and
.
/
S
GS
DS
S DS GS
R
V
I
R I V

+ #
< !imple '! <mplifier and Variation in 3D! $ith
Vgs
FET Amplifier Configurations and
Relationships:
Note: The biasing circuit is the same for each amp.
0s
1i
vi
2
vs
2
3
3
ii
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* d % * d % * && *
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o d % d % &&
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vs vi vi vi
s i s i s i
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P vi 8 vi 8
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0 r 0 0 r 0 0 0 0
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9 0 0 0
-
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9 r 0 r 0 0
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9 9 9
A A A A
0 2 9 0 2 9 0 2 9
9 9 9
A A A A
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+
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1 1 1
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1 1 1
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Figure: Circuit symbol for an enhancement-mode n-channel MOSFET.
Figure: n-Channel Enhancement MOSFET showing channel length L and channel width W.
Figure: For vGS < Vto the pn junction between drain and body is reverse biased and iD=0.
Figure: For vGS >Vto a channel of n-type material is induced in the region under the gate.
As vGS increases, the channel becomes thicker. For small values of vDS ,iD is proportional to vDS.
The device behaves as a resistor whose value depends on vGS.
Figure: As vDS increases, the channel pinches down at the drain end and iD increases more slowly.
Finally for vDS> vGS -Vto, iD becomes constant.
Current2Volta"e Relationship o
n2EMOSFET
:ocus of points where
Figure: Drain characteristics
Figure: This circuit can be used to plot drain characteristics.
Figure: Simple NMOS amplifier circuit and Characteristics with load line.
Figure: Drain characteristics and load line
Figure Small-signal equivalent circuit for FETs.
Figure FET small-signal equivalent circuit that accounts for the dependence of iD on vDS.
Figure Determination of gm and rd. See Example 5.5.
Figure Common-source amplifier.
5or drawing an a c equi!alent circuit of Amp.

Assume all 4apacitors 4,( 4-( 4s as short

circuit elements for ac signal

+hort circuit the d c supply

/eplace the 520 by its small signal model

Anal!sis o CS Ampliier
A C Equivalent Circuit
Simplified A C Equivalent Circuit
L gs m L o o
gs
o
v
R v g R i v
v
v
A

gain2 Voltage
d D L L m
gs
o
v
r R R R g
v
v
A ,
D d
D d
D d o
R r
R r
R r Z
+
imp.2 put (ut
2 1
imp.2 3nput R R R Z
G in

<nalysis of '! <mplifier $ith 9otential Divider +ias
0his is a 4+ amplifier configuration therefore the
input is on the gate and the output is on the drain.
! 0 ;; r - Av % d "
D
R 10 r D2 m
d
@ g <v
! 0 ;; r - Av % d "
/ . 0 ;; 0 9i
% d 0 ;; r 9o
% d
%
.#0 r
0 9o

4ierential Ampliiers

The circuit has t%o separate inputs# t%o separate

outputs an$ that the emitters are connecte$ to"ether.

;hile most $ierential ampliiers use t%o separate

.olta"e supplies# the circuit can also operate usin" a
sin"le suppl!.

I a an input is applie$ to either input %ith other input

"roun$e$# the operation is reerre$ to as sin"le2en$e$

I the same input is applie$ to 'oth inputs operation is

calle$ common mode.
4ierential Ampliiers
4ierential Ampliiers

In sin"le2en$e$ operation a sin"le input is applie$

Ao%e.er $ue to common emitter coni"uration# the

sin"le input operates the 'oth transistors# resultin" in an
output rom 'oth collectors.

In $ou'le2en$e$ operation# t%o inputs are applie$.

A $ou'le2en$e$ operation ma! 'e in&

Common2mo$e

4ierential mo$e

In common mo$e operation# the common input si"nal

results in opposite si"nals at each collector

These si"nals cancel each other

So this results in a 7ero output si"nal

4ierential Ampliiers

)ut in practical matter# the opposite si"nals $onMt

completel! cancel an$ a small si"nal results.

The main eature o 4ierential Ampliiers is the .er!

lar"e "ain %hen opposite si"nals are applie$ to the
inputs# as compare$ to .er! small "ain resultin" rom
common inputs.

The ratio o this $ierence "ain to common "ain is calle$

common2mo$e rejection ratio CMRR.

No% %e turn to the operation o $ierential ampliier.

4ierential Ampliiers& 4C Operation

Let us consi$er the 4C 'ias operation o the circuit

sho%n in last sli$es.

Each 'ase2input is essentiall! connecte$ to 7ero .olt as

sho%n in i"ure on ne,t sli$e
4ierential Ampliiers& 4C Operation
4ierential Ampliiers& 4C Operation

;ith each 'ase .olta"e at @ .olt# the common emitter $c

'ias .olta"e is&

VEC @ V D V)E C 2@.> V

The emitter $c 'ias current is then&

IE C N VE D Vee O F RE

Assumin" transistors are %ell2matche$&

IC< C IC5 C IE F5

This results in collector .olta"e o&

VC< C VC5 C VCC D ICRC C VCC D IERCF5
4ierential Ampliiers& AC Operation

An ac connection o a $ierential ampliier is sho%n on

ne,t sli$e.

Separate input si"nals are applie$ as Vi1 1 Vi2 %ith

separate outputs Vo< 1 Vo5

To carr! out the ac anal!sis the circuit is re$ra%n on the

same sli$e.

Each transistor is replace$ '! its ac e0ui.alent.

4ierential Ampliiers& AC Operation
4ierential Ampliiers& AC Operation
4ierential Ampliiers& AC Operation

0I1G"E E1DED )C V2"!)GE G)I1

;e no% calculate sin"le2en$e$ ac .olta"e "ain# Vo / Vi .

Appl! si"nal to one input %hile other input is "roun$e$

as sho%n in ne,t sli$e.

The ac e0ui.alent o this circuit is $ra%n on ne,t sli$e

The ac 'ase current can 'e calculate$ usin" the 'ase <
input PVL e0uation.

I one assumes that transistors are %ell matche$ then

I'< C I'5 C I'
ri< C ri5 C ri
4ierential Ampliiers& AC Operation
%ue to lar&e 'alue o( RE a
s)ort-circuit occurs )ere
4ierential Ampliiers& AC Operation
*pen Circuit
)ere
4ierential Ampliiers& AC Operation
;ith RE .er! lar"e (i$eall! ininite+# the circuit or o'tainin" the PVL
e0uation simpliies to that o i"ure on ne,t sli$e.
From it %e can %rite&
Vi< D I'ri D I'ri C @
I' C Vi< F 5ri
I %e also assume that&
H<C H5 C H
IC C H I) C H Vi< F 5ri

An$ the output .olta"e ma"nitu$e at either collector is&

VO C IC RC C N H Vi< F 5ri O RC C HRC Vi F 5Hre
ri = re
4ierential Ampliiers& AC Operation

For %hich the sin"le2en$e$ .olta"e "ain ma"nitu$e at

either collector is &
)V = V2 / Vi = 3C / %re
4ierential Ampliiers& AC Operation

D24B"E-E1DED )C V2"!)GE G)I1

A similar anal!sis coul$ 'e use$ to sho% that or the

con$ition o si"nals applie$ to 'oth inputs# the $ierential
.olta"e "ain ma"nitu$e %oul$ 'e&
A$ C VO F V$ C HRC F5ri
;here V$ C Vi< D Vi
4ierential Ampliiers& AC Operation

C25521-52DE 2-E3)!I21 2F CI3C4I!

;hile a $ierential ampliier pro.i$es lar"e

ampliication o a $ierence si"nal# it shoul$ also
pro.i$e as small as ampliication o the si"nal common
to 'oth inputs.

An ac connection sho%in" common input to 'oth

transistors is sho%n in i"ure on ne,t sli$e.

The ac e0ui.alent circuit is also re$ra%n.

I' C Vi D 5(H Q <+I'RE F ri

;hich can 'e %ritten as&

4ierential Ampliiers& AC Operation
4ierential Ampliiers& AC Operation
4ierential Ampliiers& AC Operation
I' C Vi F N ri Q 5(H Q <+RE O

The output .olta"e ma"nitu$e is then&

VO C ICRC C HI' RC C H Vi RC F N ri Q 5(H Q <+RE O

It pro.i$es a .olta"e "ain o ma"nitu$e&

)C = V2 / Vi = 3C / 6 ri 7 %( 7 $)3E 8
4ierential Ampliiers& Bse o Constant
Current Source

A "oo$ $ierential ampliier has .er! lar"e $ierence

"ain A$ %hich is much lar"er than common2mo$e "ain
AC

The common mo$e rejection a'ilit! o circuit can 'e

"reatl! impro.e$ '! ma6in" common2mo$e "ain as
small as possi'le

From this e0uation %e can see that&

AC C VO F Vi C H RC F N ri Q 5(H Q <+RE O

Lar"er the RE smaller the AC

4ierential Ampliiers& Bse o Constant
Current Source

One popular metho$ o increasin" the RE is usin"

constant current source.

Fi"ure on ne,t sli$e sho%s a $ierential ampliier %ith

constant current source to pro.i$e a lar"e .alue o
resistance rom emitter to "roun$.

The major impro.ement o this circuit is a lar"e RE

o'taine$ usin" a constant current source.

A practical current source is sho%n as a hi"h impe$ence#

in parallel %ith constant current.
4ierential Ampliiers& Bse o Constant
Current Source
Operational2Ampliier
Vd
+

Vo
Rin<inf Rout<#
8nput .
8nput /
)utput
+Vcc
-Vcc
Operational Ampliier
(Op2Amp+

Ver! hi"h $ierential "ain

Ai"h input impe$ance

Lo% output impe$ance

Pro.i$e .olta"e chan"es

(amplitu$e an$ polarit!+

Bse$ in oscillator# ilter

an$ instrumentation

Accumulate a .er! hi"h

"ain '! multiple sta"es
d d o
V G V
=
.# say lar-e, y ver
nor"ally -ain al differenti >
d
G
IC Pro$uct
2

.
/
?
@
A
B
C
=
)++&,T
ND**
-8N
28N
V
N.1.
V2
)DTPDT
)++&,T
ND**
2

.
/
?
@
A
B
C
=
)DTPDT A
-8N A
28N A
V
V2
)DTPDT B
-8N B
28N B
2

;I<-1*, ;ual op-amp ,*=) de!ice

Sin"le2En$e$ Input
+

V
o

V
i
+

V
o

V
i

> terminal 6 +ource

terminal 6 ?round

&o phase change

> terminal 6 ?round

terminal 6 +ource

,)&o phase change

4ou'le2En$e$ Input

V
1
+

V
o

V
2
+

V
o

V
d

;ifferential input

&o phase shift change

between Vo and Vd
#u6 @hat Vo should be if(
V
1
V
2
8A9 8"9
Ans6 8A or "9 A
+
V V V
d
4istortion
Vd
+

Vo
+Vcc$>=V
Vcc$=V
#
2=!
=!
0he output !oltage ne!er excess the ;4 !oltage
supply of the p-Amp
Common2Mo$e Operation
+

V
o
V
i

+ame !oltage source is applied

at both terminals

Ideally( two input are equally

amplified

utput !oltage is ideally .ero

due to differential !oltage is
.ero

<ractically( a small output

signal can still be measured
Bote for differential circuits6
pposite inputs 6 highly
amplified
4ommon inputs 6 slightly
amplified
4ommon-Code /eDection
Common2Mo$e Rejection Ratio
(CMRR+
;ifferential !oltage input 6
4ommon !oltage input 6
utput !oltage 6
Gd 6 ;ifferential gain
Gc 6 4ommon mode gain
4ommon-mode reDection ratio6
Bote6
@hen Gd EE Gc or 4C//
Vo $ GdVd
+

Noninvertin-
8nput
8nvertin-
8nput
)utput
+
V V V
d
!
/
.
+
+ V V V
c
c c d d o
V G V G V +
! dB lo- /# 1(00
.#
c
d
c
d
G
G
G
G

Op2Amp Properties
.!8nfinite )pen *oop -ain
-
The -ain without feedback
-
,Eual to differential -ain
-
9ero co""on-"ode -ain
-
Pratically, Gd : /#,### to /##,###
/! 8nfinite 8nput i"pedance
-
8nput current ii <#A
-
T- in hi-h--rade op-a"p
-
"-A input current in low--rade op-a"p
?! 9ero )utput 8"pedance
-
act as perfect internal volta-e source
-
No internal resistance
-
)utput i"pedance in series with load
-
0educin- output volta-e to the load
-
Practically, Rout < /#-.##
+

V
1
V
2
V
o
+

V
o
i
1
~0
i
2
~0
2

Rout
Vo7
Rload
out load
load
o load
R R
R
V V
+

I$eal Vs Practical Op2Amp

8deal Practical
)pen *oop -ain A

.#=
Bandwidth BW

.#-.##FG
8nput 8"pedance Zin
H.(
)utput 8"pedance
Zout
# .#-.##
)utput 4olta-e Vout
%epends only
on Vd :
424!
%ifferential
"ode si-nal
%epends sli-htly
on avera-e input
Vc : 4224!I/
1o""on-(ode
si-nal
1(00

.#-.##dB
+

AVin
Vin Vout
Zout:#
Ideal op-amp
+

AVin
Vin
Vout
Zout

Zin
Practical op-amp
I$eal Op2Amp Applications
Analysis Method :
T%o i$eal Op2Amp Properties&
(<+ The .olta"e 'et%een VQ an$ V is 7ero VQ C V
(5+ The current into 'oth VQ an$ V termainals is 7ero
For i$eal Op2Amp circuit&
(-+ ;rite the 6irchho no$e e0uation at the non in.ertin"
terminal VQ
(E+ ;rite the 6irchho no$e e0uation at the in.ertin"
terminal V
(=+ Set VQ C V an$ sol.e or the $esire$ close$2loop
"ain
Bonin!erting Amplifier
8,9 Firchhoff node equation at V>
yields(
8-9 Firchhoff node equation at V
yields(
8G9 +etting V> $ V yields
or
+
V
in
V
o

Ra
Rf
i
V V
+
#
#

f
o
a
R
V V
R
V
#

+
f
o i
a
i
R
V V
R
V
a
f
i
o
R
R
V
V
+ .
2

vi
Ra
vo
v-
v2
Rf
2

vi
Ra
vo
v-
v2
Rf
R/
R.
2

vi
vo
v-
v2
Rf
2

vi
vo
v-
v2
Rf
R/
R.
Bonin!erting amplifier Bonin!erting input with !oltage di!ider
Voltage follower
:ess than unity gain
i
a
f
o
v
R R
R
R
R
v ! ! .
/ .
/
+
+
i o
v v
i
a
f
o
v
R
R
v ! . +
i o
v
R R
R
v
/ .
/
+

In.ertin" Ampliier
(<+ Pirchho no$e e0uation at VQ
!iel$s#
(5+ Pirchho no$e e0uation at V
!iel$s#
(-+ Settin" VQ C VD !iel$s
Botice6 0he closed-loop gain Vo/Vin is
dependent upon the ratio of two
resistors( and is independent of the
open-loop gain. 0his is caused by the
use of feedbacH output !oltage to
subtract from the input !oltage.
+

Rf
Ra
V
in
V
o
#
+
V
#
3

f
o
a
in
R
V V
R
V V
a
f
in
o
R
R
V
V

Multiple Inputs
(<+ Pirchho no$e e0uation at VQ
!iel$s#
(5+ Pirchho no$e e0uation at V
!iel$s#
(-+ Settin" VQ C VD !iel$s
+

Rf
V
a
V
o
Rb
Ra
Rc
V
b
V
c
#
+
V
#
3

c
c

a
a
f
o
R
V V
R
V V
R
V V
R
V V

,
_

+ +
c
a !
!
!
f
c
c

a
a
f o
R
V
R
R
V
R
V
R
V
R V
In.ertin" Inte"rator
Now replace resistors Ra and Rf by co"pleJ
co"ponents Za and Zf, respectively,
therefore
&upposin-
i!The feedback co"ponent is a capacitor 1, i.e.,
ii!The input co"ponent is a resistor 0, Za : R
Therefore, the closed-loop -ain VoIVin! beco"e>
where
+

Zf
Za
V
in
V
o
+

R
V
in
V
o
"
in
a
f
o
V
Z
Z
V

" !
Z
f

dt t v
R"
t v
i o
!
.
!
t !
i i
e V t v

!
Op2Amp 4ierentiator
+

R
"
V
o
V
i
#
to t. t/
#
to t. t/
R"
dt
dV
v
i
o

,
_

Non2i$eal case (In.ertin" Ampliier+
+

Rf
Ra
V
in
V
o
G categories are considering

4lose-:oop Voltage ?ain

Input impedance

utput impedance

2qui!alent 4ircuit
Rf
Ra
V
in
V
o
+

R
R
V
#AV
+

AVin
Vin
Vout
Zout

Zin
Practical op-amp
Close2Loop ?ain
Rf
Ra
V
in
V
o
+

R
R
#AV
Ra
Rf
R
V
V
V
in
V
o
Applied F4: at V terminal(
"y using the open loop gain(

0he 4lose-:oop ?ain( A!

#

f
o
a
in
R
V V
R
V
R
V V

AV V
o

# + + + +
f
o
f
o o
a
o
a
in
AR
V
R
V
AR
V
AR
V
R
V

f a
a a f a f
o
a
in
R R AR
R AR R R R R R R
V
R
V

+ + +

R AR R R R R R R
R AR
V
V
A
a a f a f
f
in
o
v
+ + +

Close2Loop ?ain
@hen the open loop gain is !ery large( the abo!e equation become(
Bote 6 0he close-loop gain now reduce to the same form
as an ideal case
a
f
v
R
R
A

<
Input Impe$ance
Rf
Ra
V
in
V
o
+

R
#AV
R7
R
V
Rf
2

R
#AV
if
V
Input Impedance can be regarded as(
where R is the equi!alent impedance
of the red box circuit( that is
Iowe!er( with the below circuit(
R R R R
a in

+ II

f
i
V
R

A
R R
i
V
R
R R i AV V
o f
f
o f f
+
+

+
.
! !

Input Impe$ance
5inally( we find the input impedance as(

+ince( ( Rin become(

Again with
Bote6 0he op-amp can pro!ide an impedance isolated from
input to output
.
. .

1
1
]
1

+
+
+ +
o f
a in
R R
A
R
R R

R A R R
R R R
R R
o f
o f
a in
! .
!
+ + +
+
+

R A R R
o f
! . + << +
! .
!
<
A
R R
R R
o f
a in
+
+
+
! . A R R
o f
+ << +
a in
R R <
Output Impe$ance
nly source-free output impedance would be considered(
i.e. Vi is assumed to be &
Rf
Ra
V
o
2

R
#AV
R
V
io
V
V
Rf
Ra R
2

R
#AV
V
i/ i.
a! b!
5irstly( with figure 8a9(
"y using F4:( io $ i,> i-
"y substitute the equation from 5ig. 8a9(
R and A comparably large(
o
f a f a
a
o
a f
a
V
R R R R R R
R R
V V
R R R
R R
V

+ +

+

II
II
o
o
f a f
o
o
R
AV V
R R R
V
i
!
II


+
+

R R A R R R R R R R
R R R R R R R
i
V
R
a f a f a o
f a f a o
o
o
out
! . ! ! .
!
is i"pedance, output The
+ + + + +
+ +

a
f a o
out
AR
R R R
R
!
<
+
Than6 Rou