5A-3 Astrophysics

Cosmology
Astrophysics booklet pages 54 to 65

August 21st, 2010

AQA A2 Specification
Lessons
1 to 5

Topics 1.4 Cosmology

Doppler effect z = f / f = v / c and / = - v / cFor v c applied to optical and radio frequencies. Calculations on binary stars viewed in the plane of orbit, galaxies and quasars. Hubbles law Red shift v = Hd Simple interpretation as expansion of universe; estimation of age of universe, assuming H is constant. Qualitative treatment of Big Bang theory including evidence from cosmological microwave background radiation, and relative abundance of H and He. Controversy concerning accelerating Universe and dark energy.(from section 1.3) Quasars Quasars as the most distant measurable objects. Discovery as bright radio sources. Quasars show large optical red shifts; estimation of distance.

The Doppler Effect

As the ambulance travels forwards:

The sound wave in front is compressed

- decreasing its wavelength - increasing its frequency
A A B C B C D D E

The sound wave behind is stretched out: - increasing its wavelength

- decreasing its frequency

ambulance sound demo

The Doppler Effect also occurs with light and radio waves. With light waves: In front of the moving object decreasing wavelength and increasing frequency makes the light BLUER Behind the moving object increasing wavelength and decreasing frequency makes the light REDER

Radial and tangential velocity

Consider a galaxy moving relative to the Sun at velocity v. This velocity can be split into two components: radial velocity, vr vr = v cos and tangential velocity, vt vt = v sin The Doppler Effect can be used to measure radial velocities.

vt

vr

Doppler effect equations

When the radial speed of the object, v is MUCH LESS than the speed of light, c. change of frequency = object radial speed source frequency speed of light f = v f c

Also: change of wavelength = object radial speed source wavelength speed of light = - v c In either case, The Doppler Shift, z is given by: z = f = - = v f c
Remember: v MUST BE << c

Question 1
Light of frequency 4.000 x 1014 Hz is emitted from a galaxy that is moving away from us at 600 kms-1. Calculate: (a) the frequency shift caused and, (b) the observed frequency. (a) v is << c and so: f / f = v / c can be used f = (v / c) x f = (600 kms-1 / 300 000 kms-1) x 4.000 x 1014 Hz = 0.002 x 4.0 x 1014 frequency shift = 8.0 x 1011 Hz (b) The galaxy is receding and so the observed frequency is lower than the source frequency. source frequency = (4000 - 8) x 1011 Hz = 3992 x 1011 Hz observed frequency = 3.992 x 1014 Hz

c = 300 000 kms-1

Question 2
The Andromeda Galaxy has a Doppler Shift of 0.000 5. The observed wavelengths are also smaller than the source wavelengths. (a) Calculate radial velocity of the Andromeda Galaxy relative to the Earth. (b) What will be the observed wavelength of red light if the source was 700.00 nm? (a) A Doppler Shift of 0.000 5 will mean that v is << c and so: / = - v / c = z can be used. v=zxc = 0.000 5 x 300 000 kms-1 speed = 150 kms-1 The wavelengths are decreased therefore the Andromeda Galaxy is moving towards the Earth. radial velocity = 150 kms-1 towards the Earth (b) / = z = z x = 0.000 5 x 700.00 nm = 0.35 nm less than the source observed wavelength = 699.65 nm

c = 300 000

kms-1

Question 3
A hydrogen radio source emits waves of frequency 1420 MHz. A radio telescope observes these waves to have a frequency of 1430 MHz. Calculate radial velocity of the source relative to the Earth. c = 300 000 kms-1 f = (1430 1420) MHz = 10 MHz f / f = z z = 10 MHz / 1420 MHz = 0.00704 A Doppler Shift of 0.00704 will mean that v is << c and so: z = v / c can be used v=zxc = 0.00704 x 300 000 kms-1 radial speed = 2 112 kms-1 The frequency is increased therefore the radio source is moving towards the Earth. radial velocity = 2 112 kms-1 towards the Earth

Doppler shift summary

Doppler shift, z Source moves towards observer in frequency in wavelength f f Colour shift with light

+ v c - v c

- v c + v c

BLUE SHIFT RED

Source moves away from observer

SHIFT

Doppler shift in spectra

wavelength / nm 400 Stationary source 500 600 H 700

H Receding source RED SHIFT H

Approaching source BLUE SHIFT

Question
The hydrogen-alpha spectra line of a distant galaxy occurs at a wavelength of 680 nm. In the Sun this wavelength is 656 nm. Calculate the recessional radial velocity of the galaxy. c = 300 000 kms-1 = (680 656) nm = 24 nm / = z z = 24 nm / 656 nm = 0.0366 A Doppler Shift of 0.0366 will mean that v is << c and so: z = v / c can be used v=zxc = 0.0366 x 300 000 kms-1 = 10 980 kms-1 recessional speed = 11 000 kms-1

The Doppler effect with binary stars

A binary star system consists of two stars in mutual orbit about each other. The two stars are often too close together to be resolved by a telescope as separate stars.
However, as they orbit each other they will be moving away and towards the Earth. The stars will produce both red and blue shifts which can be measured. This type of system is called a spectroscopic binary. From the Doppler shift measurements the orbital speeds of the stars can be found.

star A

star B line of sight SPECTRA

From star A From star B

Blueshift Red shift No shift Blueshift Red shift

Combined

H-alpha line position from a stationary source In the example above, star A is more massive than star B. This results in the orbital radius and speed of star A being less than star B.

Question
A spectral line of a certain spectroscopic binary merges once every 4 years and splits to a maximum displacement of 0.036 nm and 0.015 nm from its laboratory wavelength of 656 nm. Calculate: (a) the orbital speed of each star and (b) the radius of the larger orbit. c = 300 000 kms-1 The slower star has the smaller = 0.015 nm / = v / c becomes: v = c x (/ ) = 300 000 x (0.015 / 656) slower star = 6.86 kms-1 With the faster star: v = 300 000 x (0.036 / 656) faster star = 16.5 kms-1 The merging of the line occurs every half-period. Therefore: T = 8 years The faster star will have the greater orbital radius, R The orbital speed of the faster star, v = 2R / T and so: R = Tv / 2 = [(8 x 365 x 24 x 60 x 60s) x (16.5 kms-1)] / 2 = [(252 288 000s) x (16 500 ms-1)] / 2 = (4.162 x 1012 m) / 2 = 6.63 x 1011 m larger radius = 662 million km

Hubbles Law
In 1929 after plotting the redshift calculated speeds of about thirty galaxies against their distances Hubble noticed that a rough straight line through the origin was obtained.

Hubbles law states that the speed of recession of a galaxy is proportional to the distance to the galaxy.

vd
inserting a constant of proportionality:

v = Hd
H = the Hubble constant = 65 km s-1 Mpc-1

Notes: (a) Mpc = megaparsec (= 3.26 million light years) (b) Hubbles law does not work with some nearby galaxies (which are approaching us!)

Question 1
Calculate or state the speeds expected for galaxies at distances: (a) 1 Mpc; (b) 10 Mpc & (c) 1 billion light years. 1 Mpc = 3.26 million light years (a) From the definition of the Hubble constant, H: A galaxy at distance 1 Mpc will have a speed of 65 km s-1 (b) At 10 Mpc the speed will be 650 km s-1 (c) 1 billion light years = (1000 / 3.26) Mpc = 306.7 Mpc therefore speed = 306.7 x 65 speed = 19 900 km s-1

Question 2
Calculate the distance, in light years, to a galaxy if its recessional velocity is 10% of the speed of light. c = 300 000 kms-1 & 1 pc = 3.26 lyr v = Hd therefore: d=v/H = (0.1 x 300 000 kms-1) / (65 km s-1 Mpc-1) = 30 000 / 65 = 461.5 Mpc = (461.5 x 3.26) Mlyr = 1 504 Mlyr = 1.5 billion light years

The expansion of the Universe

Hubbles law tells us that distant galaxies are receding from us and that the further they are away the faster they are moving away from us. Hence the Universe is expanding.

Balloon model of the expanding Universe The space between the galaxies expands and so the galaxies grow further apart

Estimating the age of the Universe

Hubbles constant tells us that the speed of a galaxy increases by 65 kms-1 for every Mpc or 3.26 million light years. For a galaxy to be receding at the speed of light its distance would be: (300 000 kms-1) / (65 kms-1 Mpc-1) = 4 615 Mpc = 4 615 x 3.26 million light years = 15 billion light years Galaxies cannot travel this fast. Therefore light cannot have been travelling for this length of time. Therefore the Universe must be less than 15 billion years old. The current greatest length of time observed is about 13.5 billion years.

As can be seen in the above calculation, the maximum size of the Universe, D is given by: D=c/H But distance = speed x time For a galaxy travelling at speed c for the age of the Universe T. D=cT Therefore: c / H = c T 1/H= T Hence the maximum age of the Universe is given by:

T=1 H
Note: All of the above assumes that the Hubble constant has not changed during the lifetime of the Universe.

Question 1
The unit of 1 / H must be one of time. Calculate the value of 1 / H in seconds. 1 Mpc = 3.1 x 1022 m H = 65 kms-1 Mpc-1 Therefore 1 / H = 0.0154 Mpc s km-1 But 1 Mpc = 3.1 x 1022 m = 3.1 x 1019 km Hence: 1 / H = 0.0154 x 3.1 x 1019 km s km-1 = 4.77 x 1017 s (15 000 million years)

Question 2
In 2009 measurements from the Hubble Space Telescope yielded a Hubble constant of 74.2 3.6 km s-1 Mpc-1. What is the maximum age of the Universe, in years, based on this measurement? 1 Mpc = 3.1 x 1019 km T=1/H Maximum T will come from a minimum value of H. that is: 74.2 - 3.6 = 70.6 km s-1 Mpc-1 Therefore: T = 1 / 70.6 = 0.0142 Mpc s km-1 But 1 Mpc = 3.1 x 1019 km Hence: 1 / H = 0.0142 x 3.1 x 1019 km s km-1 = 4.40 x 1017 s = (4.40 x 1017 s) / (365 x 24 x 60 x 60) years Maximum age = 14 000 million years

The Big Bang theory

Hubbles law supports the idea that the Universe started in some form of massive explosion. This idea is called the Big Bang theory. This theory was not generally accepted until 1965 before which an alternative explanation for the expansion of the Universe called the Steady State theory was dominant.

Evidence for the Big Bang theory

1. Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) radiation
All of space emits thermal radiation with a maximum intensity wavelength corresponding to a temperature of 2.7K. It is radiation created in the Big Bang that has been travelling ever since the Universe became transparent (about 377 000 years after the Big Bang). The expansion of the Universe has gradually increased the wavelengths of this radiation so that it now occurs in the microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum. This radiation was first detected by Penzias and Wilson in 1965.
Expanding Universe

The microwave detector used by Penzias and Wilson

Cosmic Microwave Background radiation. CMB map of the whole Universe obtained by the COBE satellite in 1989

2. Relative abundance of hydrogen to helium

Using the Big Bang model it is possible to calculate the ratio of concentration of hydrogen to helium-4 by mass.
This depends on the ratio of photons to baryons, which itself can be calculated independently from the detailed structure of Cosmic Microwave Background fluctuations. The ratio by mass predicted is about 4:1.

The measured ratio of abundance is 3:1 which is roughly in agreement.

Other ratios such as hydrogen to Lithium-7 or Helium-3 also give roughly similar results.

Revision Question
Calculate the wavelength and frequency associated with a thermal temperature of 2.7K.

Weins displacement law: max T = 0.0029 mK max x 2.7K = 0.0029 mK max = 0.0029 / 2.7 wavelength = 0.0011 m (1.1 mm)
c=f becomes: f = c / = (300 000 000 m/s) / (0.0011m) frequency = 2.7 x 1011 Hz (270 GHz)

Revision of supernovae as standard candles

Type 1a supernovae have a known peak luminosity allowing them to be used as standard candles. At their peak all of these supernovae have an absolute magnitude, M of -19.3 0.03. By noting their apparent peak magnitude, m such supernovae can be used to determine this distances to galaxies using the equation: m M = 5 log (d / 10)

Question
In a distant galaxy a Type 1a supernova is observed to have an apparent magnitude of + 21 and a recessional speed (from red-shift measurement) of 60 000 kms-1. Calculate the distance to this galaxy (a) from the magnitude measurement (b) using Hubbles law. Assume Type 1a supernovae have an absolute magnitude of 19. Comment on your answers (a) m M = 5 log (d / 10) rearranged: log (d / 10) = [(m M) / 5] = [(21 (-19) / 5] = 40 / 5 = 8.0 antiloging: = 100 x 106 = d / 10 Distance to galaxy = 1000 Mpc (b) Hubbles law: v = Hd therefore: d = v / H = (60 000 kms-1) / (65 km s-1 Mpc-1) = 923 Mpc Distance to galaxy = 920 Mpc (c) The magnitude measurement gives a greater distance measurement than the one obtained from red-shift measurement.

Dark energy
In 1998 astronomers discovered that very distant type 1a supernovae were further away than expected. Measurement of their red shifts (used to measure their velocities) and the use of Hubbles Law to obtain their distances shows that these supernovae are fainter than expected. These mesurements indicate that the Universe is expanding faster now than when the supernovae exploded as the light has had to travel further to reach us than expected by a constant rate of expansion (assummed to be the case with Hubbles Law). These and further measurements have led astronomers to conclude that the expansion of the Universe has been accelerating for about the past 5000 million years. Before this discovery, the expansion of the Universe was expected to be decelerating due to the attractive gravitational forces of galaxies on each other. Therefore there appears to be some unknown repulsive force acting which is releasing some hidden potential energy which is currently known as dark energy.

The nature of dark energy is unclear. It is thought to be a form of background energy present throughout space and time. It is more prominent than gravity at large distances as gravity becomes weaker with distance (inverse square law) whereas the force associated with dark energy is thought to remain constant. Current theories suggest that it makes up 70% of the total energy of the Universe. The idea of dark energy leads to the speculation that in the future the force associated with dark energy will ultimately tear apart all gravitationally bound structures, including galaxies and solar systems, and eventually overcome the electrical and nuclear forces to tear apart atoms themselves, ending the universe in a "Big Rip".

Dark energy controversy

It has been noted that if Newtons law of gravitation: F = GMm/r2 became: F = GMm/r at large, intergalactic distances, then the acceleration of the expansion of the universe no longer requires the existence of Dark Energy. Other alternative ideas for dark energy have come from string theory, brane cosmology and the holographic principle.

Quasars
Quasar stand for quasi-stellar radio source. A quasar is a compact region in the centre of a massive galaxy surrounding a central supermassive black hole. Its size is 10-10,000 times the Schwarzschild radius of the black hole. The quasar is powered by an accretion disc around the black hole. Quasars were first identified as being high redshift sources of electromagnetic energy, including radio waves and visible light, that were point-like, similar to stars, rather than extended sources similar to galaxies.
Artists impression of a quasar

Infra-red image of a quasar.

Quasars are among the oldest and most distant objects in the Universe. A quasar is characterised by:

its very powerful light output, much greater than the most massive of stars its relatively small size, not much larger than a star a large red shift indicating its distance is between 5 and 10 billion light years away.

The first quasar discovered, 3C 273 produced strong radio emissions. However, not all quasars produce such emissions.

Question
Light from a certain quasar was found to contain a spectral line that had been red-shifted by 80 nm from its normal wavelength of 486 nm. Calculate the recessional speed of this quasar. c = 300 000 kms-1 z = / = 80 nm / 486 nm = 0.164

A Doppler Shift of 0.164 will mean that v reasonably smaller than c and so: z = v / c can be used to a reasonable accuracy v=zxc = 0.164 x 300 000 kms-1 recessional speed = 49 300 kms-1

Internet Links
Red Shift - eChalk Expanding Universe - 7stones Expanding Universe - eChalk Age of the Universe - eChalk Big Bang Time Machine - School Science Doppler Effect - Sound with microphone Doppler Effect - Iona Doppler Effect - Explore Science Doppler Effect (Quick Sound Demo) - Iona Doppler effect - NTNU Doppler effect - ambulance - Fendt Doppler Shift with light - eChalk Doppler Shift with sound - eChalk Doppler Shift with sound effects- eChalk

Core Notes from Student Guide pages 54 to 65

1.
2.

3.

4. 5.

Draw a diagram to explain what is meant by the Doppler effect State the various equations relating the wavelength and frequency change observed with the motion of the radiating body. What must be true for these equations to be used with reasonable accuracy? Explain how the Doppler effect can be used to determine the speeds of the stars that form a spectroscopic binary. State Hubbles law. Explain how Hubbles law leads on to the idea of the expanding Universe and the Big Bang theory.

6.

Show how the Hubble constant can yield an estimate for the age of the Universe. 7. What evidence is there for the Big Bang theory? 8. What is dark energy? Explain why it is needed to account for the observations of some type 1a supernovae. 9. What is a Quasar? 10. What are the main characteristics of quasars?

Notes from the Student Guide pages 54 to 58

3.1 The Doppler Effect
1. 2.
3. 4. 5.

Draw a diagram to explain what is meant by the Doppler effect State the various equations relating the wavelength and frequency change observed with the motion of the radiating body. What must be true for these equations to be used with reasonable accuracy? Explain how the Doppler effect can be used to determine the speeds of the stars that form a spectroscopic binary.
Repeat the worked example on page 56 but this time for a star whose spectral line is displaced by 0.025 nm. Repeat the worked example on page 57 but this time for a binary whose lines merge every 0.80 years with the same spectral displacements from a laboratory wavelength of 520 nm. Do not repeat the error made in the worked example! Try the summary questions on page 58

6.

Notes from the Student Guide pages 59 to 63

3.2 Hubbles Law & Beyond
1. 2.
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

State Hubbles law. Explain how Hubbles law leads on to the idea of the expanding Universe and the Big Bang theory. Show how the Hubble constant can yield an estimate for the age of the Universe. What evidence is there for the Big Bang theory? What is dark energy? Explain why it is needed to account for the observations of some type 1a supernovae.
Repeat the worked example on page 60 but this time for a galaxy whose spectral line is observed as 400.0 nm. If H was 75 kms-1 Mpc-1, what is the maximum age of the Universe? Try the summary questions on page 63

Notes from the Student Guide pages 64 & 65

3.3 Quasars

1. What is a Quasar? 2. What are the main characteristics of quasars?

3. Try the summary questions on page 65