Yuniarti

Anatomy Department Faculty of Medicine UNISBA

ENDOCRINE GLAND
secretions, called hormones

EKSOKRIN GLAND
secretions include mucus, sweat, oil, earwax, saliva, and digestive enzymes

Secrete their product into the interstitial fluid and then diffuse directly into the bloodstream without flowing through a duct

Secrete their products into ducts that empty onto the surface of a covering and lining epithelium such as the skin surface or the lumen of a hollow organ.

 Hypothalamic gland Pituitary gland Thyroid gland Parathyroid gland Thymus gland Pancreas gland Adrenal gland Gonads gland

 The hypothalamus is a small part of the diencephalon located inferior to the thalamus

Forms the floor and the inferior part of the lateral walls of the third ventricle

 Four major regions of hypothalamus:

1. The mammillary region - Adjacent to midbrain, is the most posterior part of the hypothalamus - It includes : * the mammillary bodies * posterior hypothalamic nucleus

2. The tubular region - The widest part of hypothalamus - It includes : *dorsomedial nucleus *ventromedial nucleus *arcuate nucleus *infundibulum

3. The supraoptic region - Lies to the optic chiasm - Contains : * paraventricular nucleus * supraoptic nucleus * anterior hypothalamic nucleus * suprachiasmatic nucleus

4. The preoptic region - Contain : *medial preoptic nucleus *lateral preoptic nucleus

Nucleus

Function

Supraoptic nucleus
Paraventricular nucleus Preoptic and anterior nuclei Posterior and lateral nuclei Anterior hypothalamic nuclei Posterior hypothalamic nuclei Lateral hypothalamic nuclei Medial hypothalamic nuclei Lateral hypothalamic nuclei Suprachiasmatic nucleus

Synthesizes vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone)

Synthesizes oxytocin Control parasympathetic system Control sympathetic system Regulate temperature (response to heat) Regulate temperature (response to cold) Initiate eating and increase food intake (hunger center) Inhibit eating and reduce food intake (satiety center) Increase water intake (thirst center) Controls circadian rhythms

Hypothalamic Regulatory Hormone Growth hormonereleasing hormone (GHRH) Growth hormoneinhibiting hormone (GHIH) or somatostatin Prolactin-releasing hormone (PRH) Prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH), dopamine Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)

Functional Result Stimulates linear growth in epiphyseal cartilages Reduces linear growth in epiphyseal cartilages Stimulates lactogenesis Reduces lactogenesis Stimulates adrenal gland to produce corticosteroids and sex hormones Stimulates thyroid gland to produce thyroxine Stimulates ovarian follicles and production of estrogen and progesterone

Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) Luteinizing hormonereleasing hormone (LHRH),follicle-stimulating releasing hormone (FRH)

 The Master Gland :produces hormones that control the activity of other endocrine glands It is a small gland located in the sella turcica (Turk's saddle) of the sphenoid bone of the skull, immediately inferior to the hypothalamus of the brain. The sphenoid bone serves as a protective cradle around the gland. A stalk or infundibulum attaches the gland to the hypothalamus.

Contains two lobes, the anterior (adenohypophysis) and posterior (neurohypophysis). The anterior lobe has three part : pars distalis (Anterior lobe), pars tuberalis, pars intermedia Pars tuberalis is a funnel-shaped region surrounding the infundibulum of the neurohypophysis . Most of the cells of the pars tuberalis are basophilic gonadotropic cells that secrete follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). The pars intermedia, separates the anterior and posterior pituitary. It produces, melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH). The posterior lobe, the neurohypophysis or pars nervosa

Anterior pituitary / adenohypofisis gland

Five types of anterior pituitary cells secrete seven hormones :

Release of anterior pituitary hormone is stimulated by releasing hormone and supressed by inhibiting hormone from the hypothalamus

The superior hypophyseal arteries, branches of the internal carotid arteries,bring blood ito the hypothalamus at the juncture of the median eminence of the hypothalamus and the infundibulum, these arteries divide into a capillarynetwork called the primary plexus of the hypophyseal portal system from the primary plexus, blood drains into the hypophyseal portal veins that pass down the outside of the infundibulum

Vascularization of anterior pituitary (hypophyseal portal system)

In the anterior pituitary, the hypophyseal portal vein divide again and form another capillary network called the secondary plexus of the hypophyseal portal system
From this plexus, blood drains into anterior hypophyseal vein

Hormone release in anterior pituitary

Near the median eminence and above the optic chiasm are clusters of specialized neurons, called neurosecretory cells They synthesize the hypothalamic releasing and inhibiting hormones in their cell bodies and package the hormones inside vesicles, which reach the axon terminals by axonal transport. Nerve impulses stimulate the vesicles to undergo exocytosis The hormones then diffuse into the primary plexus of the hypophyseal portal system Quickly, the hypothalamic hormones flow with the blood through the portal veins and into the secondary plexus. To anterior pituitary cells, before the hormones are diluted or destroyed in the general circulation Hormones secreted by anterior pituitary cells pass into the secondary plexus capillaries drain into the anterior hypophyseal veins and out into the general circulation. Anterior pituitary hormones then travel to target tissues throughout the body

Posterior pituitary / neurohypofisis gland

The posterior pituitary (posterior lobe) contains axons and axon terminals whose cell bodies are located in the supraoptic nuclei (produces antidiuretic hormone (ADH) / vasopressin) and paraventricular nuclei (produces oxytocin (OT). The posterior pituitary it does not synthesize hormones, it does store and release two hormone

The inferior hypophyseal arteries, which branch from the internal carotid arteries, supply blood to the posterior pituitary. In the posterior pituitary, the inferior hypophyseal arteries drains into the capillary plexus of the infundibular process, a capillary network that receives secreted oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone.

Vascularization of posterior pituitary

From this plexus,hormones pass into the posterior hypophyseal veins for distribution to target cells in other tissue

Hormone release in posterior pituitary

The cell bodies of the neurosecretory cells are in the paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei of the hypothalamus their axons form the hypothalamohypophyseal tract The paraventricular nucleus synthesizes the hormone oxytocin and the supraoptic nucleus produces vasopressin After their production in the cell bodies of neurosecretory cells, oxytocin and vasopressin are packaged into secretory vesicles which move by fast axonal transport to the axon terminals in the posterior pituitary, where they are stored until nerve impulses trigger exocytosis and release of the hormone. Blood is supplied to the posterior pituitary by the inferior hypophyseal arteries, which branch from the internal carotid arteries the inferior hypophyseal arteries drain into the capillary plexus of the infundibular process, a capillary network that receives secreted oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone From this plexus, hormones pass into the posterior hypophyseal veins for distribution to target cells in other tissues.

 The thyroid gland is located anteriorly in the neck. Weight : 25 g It lies deep to the sternothyroid and sternohyoid muscles from the level of the C5-T1 vertebrae

It consists primarily of right and left lobes, anterolateral to the larynx and trachea

A relatively thin isthmus unites the lobes over the trachea, usually anterior to the second and third tracheal rings
The thyroid gland is surrounded by a thin fibrous capsule, which sends septa deeply into the gland.

Approximately 50% of thyroid glands have a pyramidal lobe. This lobe, which varies in size, extends superiorly from the isthmus of thyroid gland, usually to the left of the median plane; the isthmus may be incomplete. The pyramidal lobe develop from remnants of the epithelium and connective tissue of the thyroglossal duct

Portions of the thyroglossal duct may persist to form thyroid tissue

Accessory thyroid glandular tissue may appear anywhere along the embryonic course of the thyroglossal duct. Accessory thyroid tissue may develop in the neck lateral to the thyroid cartilage; it usually lies on the thyrohyoid muscle. Although the accessory tissue may be functional, it is often of insufficient size to maintain normal function if the thyroid gland is removed

Vascularization of thyroid gland

The rich blood supply of the thyroid gland is from the paired superior and inferior thyroid arteries In approximately 10% of people, a thyroid ima artery arises from the brachiocephalic trunk, the arch of the aorta, or from the right common carotid, or subclavian artery.This small artery ascends on the anterior surface of the trachea, which it supplies, and continues to the isthmus of the thyroid gland.

Three pairs of thyroid veins usually drain the thyroid plexus of veins on the anterior surface of the thyroid gland and trachea The superior and middle thyroid veins drain into the IJVs The inferior thyroid veins drain into the brachiocephalic veins

 Embedded in the posterior surface of the lateral lobes of the thyroid gland Each has a mass of about 40 mg (0.04 g) Usually, one superior and one inferior parathyroid gland are attached to each lateral thyroid lobe, for a total of four.

The two superior parathyroid glands are usually at the level of the inferior border of the cricoid cartilage.
The inferior parathyroid glands are usually near the inferior poles of the thyroid gland, but they may lie in a variety of positions.

Sites and frequencies of abberant parathyroid glandular tissue

Vascularization of parathyroid gland

The inferior thyroid arteries supply both the superior and the inferior parathyroid glands However, these glands may also be supplied by branches from the superior thyroid arteries, the thyroid ima artery, or the laryngeal, tracheal, and esophageal arteries.

Vascularization of parathyroid gland

The parathyroid veins drain into the thyroid plexus of veins of the thyroid gland

Location of Suprarenal Glands

Located between the

superomedial aspects of the kidneys and the diaphragm

The pyramidal right gland is more apical (situated over the superior pole) relative to the right kidney, lies anterolateral to the right of the diaphragm, and makes contact with the IVC anteromedially and the liver anterolaterally

 The crescent-shaped left gland is medial to the superior half of the left kidney and is related to the spleen, stomach, pancreas and the left of the diaphragm

 Suprarenal glands surrounded by connective tissue containing

considerable perinephric fat Suprarenal glands are enclosed by renal fascia by which they are attached to the crura of the diaphragm Each gland has a hilum, where the veins and lymphatic vessels exit the gland; whereas arteries and nerve enter the glands at multiple sites

The medial borders of the suprarenal glands are 4-5 cm apart. In this area, from right to left, are the IVC, right of the diaphragm, celiac ganglion, celiac trunk, SMA and the left of the diaphragm.

Each suprarenal gland has two parts : ~ Suprarenal cortex ~ Suprarenal medulla is a modified sympathetic ganglion of the ANS

SUPRARENAL CORTEX Derives from mesoderm

Three zones in suprarenal cortex

Outer zone / zona glomerulosa

middle zone / zona fasciculata

Inner zone / Zona reticularis

Mineralocorticoid hormone

Glucocorticoid hormone

Androgen hormone

Vascularisation of suprarenal glands Suprarenal glands arteries : ~ Superior suprarenal arteries ~ Middle suprarenal arteries ~ Inferior suprarenal arteries

Venous drainage : ~ Right suprarenal vein drains into the IVC ~ Left suprarenal vein drains into the left renal vein

Location of pancreas : Pancreas is an elongated, accessory digestive gland that lies retroperitoneally Transversely across the posterior abdominal wall posterior to the stomach between duodenum on the right and the spleen on the left.

The pancreas produce :

An exocrine secretion ( pancreatic juice from the acinar cells) that enter the duodenum through the main and accessory pancreatic ducts. Endocrine secretion (glucagon & insulin) from the pancreatic islets (of langerhans) that enter blood.

Parts of pancreas :
Head
Neck

Body
Tail

 The head of the pancreas is the expanded part of the gland that is embraced by the C-shaped curve of the duodenum to the right of the superior mesenteric vessels. It firmly attaches to the medial aspect of the descending and horizontal parts of the duodenum.

The uncinate process, a projection from the inferior part of the pancreatic head, extends medially to the left, posterior to the SMA.

The neck of the pancreas is short and overlies the superior mesenteric vessels, which form a groove in its posterior aspect
The anterior surface of the neck, covered with peritoneum, is adjacent to the pylorus of the stomach.

The tail of the pancreas lies anterior to the left kidney, where it is closely related to the splenic hilum and the left colic flexure. The tail is relatively mobile

The main pancreatic duct

Begins in the tail of the pancreas and runs through the parenchyma of the gland to the pancreatic head, here it turns inferiorly and is closely related to the bile duct. Most of the time, the main pancreatic duct and the bile duct unite to form the short, dilated hepatopancreatic ampulla (of vater), which opens into the descending part of the duodenum at the summit of the major duodenal papilla

Accessory pancreatic duct

Opens into the duodenum at the summit of the minor duodenal papilla Usually (60%) communicates with the main pancreatic duct

Smooth muscle sphincter that control the flow of bile & pancreatic juice into duodenum : - Sphincter of the pancreatic duct - Sphincter of the bile duct - Sphincter of hepatopancreatic (sphincter of Oddi)

-The pancreatic arteries derive mainly from the branches of the splenic artery -The
anterior and posterior superior pancreaticoduodenal arteries, branches of the gastroduodenal artery -The anterior and posterior inferior pancreaticoduodenal arteries, branches of the SMA

The pancreatic veins are tributaries of the splenic and superior mesenteric parts of the hepatic portal vein; however, most of them empty into the splenic vein