PROTOCOLS & ERRORS

MODEMS

ALVAREZ | CASCANO | HINAHON | ESPEDIDO | VALERIO

 What is a Protocol?

A uniform set of rules that enable two devices to

connect and transmit data to one another. Protocols determine how data are transmitted between computing devices and over networks. They define issues such as error control and data compression methods. The protocol determines the following: type of error checking to be used, data compression method (if any), how the sending device will indicate that it has finished a message and how the receiving device will indicate that it has received the message.

Modulation Protocols

Modulation protocols determine how

modems convert digital data into analog signals that can be sent over a phone line.

Modulation Protocols

The conversion between digital and analog data is governed by proprietary and international standards,

called modem

protocols.

Modulation Protocols
The difference between Protocol and Modulation.

Modulation is the method that the signal is being

transmitted by the transmitter so that the receiver will recognize it as a valid signal.

Protocol is the method that the data to be

transmitted are arranged and sent to the receiver.

Modulation Speed

The speed at which modems transmit data is called

the

throughput.

This is measured in bits per second (bps).

Modulation Speed
The bps

rate of a modem is the measure of how

many bits per second the modem transmits.

10 bps = 1 cps (character per second)

1 character = 8 data bits plus 1 start bit and 1 stop

bit.
Current modems can sometimes transmit up to 115,200 bits per

second.

Modulation Speed

The

baud rate of a modem is the measure of

how many times per second a modem's signal changes.

Because of limitations in standard phone lines, it is hard to get baud

rates higher than 2,400. Most high speed modems run at 2,400 baud.

Protocol Working Overview

v.90

v.90 v.34 v.32biz

v.34 v.32biz
v.32

History

1960
110bps modems Teletype machines No computers involved

History

1960

AT&T 300 bps modem Sold commercially in 1962. Slow and expensive modems
connecting a dumb terminal to a mainframe computer over phone lines.

Used for transmitting data between mainframe computers or for

History

1980s
Bulletin Board Systems (BBS)

History

1990s
Internet
BBS almost died (some got into the internet) and

Internet started gaining popularity (though expensive)

Bell Standard and its Implications

At 1200 bps and below there were two

standards

CCITT (ITU at present) Bell

A Bell modem cannot communicate with a

CCITT modem Bell standard at that time was used predominantly in the US Today, all modems fall under the ITU specifications

Modulation Protocols Terms

CCITT. International Telegraph and Telephone

Consultative Committee (CCITT, from French: Comit Consultatif International Tlphonique et Tlgraphique) (Note: CCITT changed its name to ITU-T on March 1, 1993). ITU-T. International Telecommunications Union, Telecommunication Standardization Sector.V.xxxITU-T (CCITT) series of "recommendations" (standards) relating to telecommunications. bis"the second ter"the third PEP. Packet Ensemble Protocol (Telebit proprietary). HST. High Speed Technology (US Robotics proprietary).

HISTORY
ITU modem standards.

The International Telegraphic Union (ITU) is an international association that establishes worldwide communication standards. Its standards are prefaced by the letter -V- (called the V series) and include the following:

A Note on the Protocol Used in the Faster 56K Modems

When the 56K modems were first introduced there

were two competing standards One was the X2 standard proposed by US Robotics that is now part of 3Com The competing protocol was knows as the Kflex56 standard

A joint effort between Lucent and Rockwell

ITU Standard for 56K Modems

Both standards have now been superceded by the

ITU V.90 standard The vendors now produce modems that operate under the ITU V.90 protocol The vendors also offer upgrades to the older X2 and Kflex modems so that they could operate under V.90

v.92 Features
V.92 is an ITU-T recommendation, titled

Enhancements to Recommendation V.90, that establishes a modem standard allowing near 56 kb/s download and 48 kb/s upload rates. With V.92 PCM is used for both the upstream and downstream connections; previously 56K modems only used PCM for downstream data. V.92 was first presented in August 1999. It was intended to succeed the V.90 standards; however, with the spread of broadband Internet access, uptake was minimal.

v.92 Features
Quick Connect

This reduces negotiation times to around 10 seconds

instead of over 20 seconds. Quick connect works by training the client modem on the first call; analog and digital characteristics are stored in a local profile and then retrieved for future connections.

v.92 Features

"Modem on Hold" (MOH)[

This allows the connection to be temporarily severed

and then reconnected, reducing the possibility of dropped connections. This is particularly useful for lines that have call waiting.

v.92 Features
PCM upstream

Pulse-code modulation (or PCM) allows higher rate

digital transmissions over the analog phone lines. PCM upstream provides a digital connection for upstream data, reducing latency and allowing for a maximum upload speed of 48 kbit/s. Previously the speed was limited to a 33.6 kbit/s analog signal under the previous V.90.

V.44 compression
V.44 compression replaces the existing V.42bis

compression standards. It generally allows for between 10% and 120% better compression. In most situations the improvement is around 25%.

Error Correction Protocols

Error Correction Protocols

Line noise can cause significant errors in modem

connections. While a moment of line noise at 300 bps can create several junk characters, that same moment of noise at 28,800 bps can fill the screen with garbage. Error correction protocols combat the line noise problem by packetizing the data and providing checksums to help determine if the data has been corrupted in transmission. Error correction and data compression ensure accurate, swift data transfers.

Data Compression Protocols

Data Compression Protocols In the never ending quest to increase transmission rates,

several data compression protocols have been developed for serial transmissions. Data compression protocols shrink the data that must be transmitted over a connection, thereby increasing the transmission rate. The two most popular data compression protocols for modems are MNP-5, with a maximum compression ratio of 2 to 1, and CCITT V.42bis, with a maximum compression rate of 4 to 1. Note, however, that these data compression protocols only help with compressible data. It is possible to decrease the transmission rate using a data compression protocol with already compressed data. In general, though, a data compression protocol certainly helps more than it hinders.

Error Correction Protocols

MNP Levels 1-4

Microcom Networking Protocol- (MNP-), developed

by Microcom Systems, Inc., enables error-free async data transmission. Although MNP is proprietary, it became an industry standard in the 1980s because users demanded it from manufacturers. Both modems in a connection must use the same MNP protocols.

Data Compression Protocols

MNP Level 5

Incorporates the first four levels and also applies

a data-compression algorithm. It -compressesdata 2:1, so you can double the amount of data you send at the modem's top transmission speed. For example, with MNP Level 5, modems that transmit data at 4800 bps send an amount of data equal to an uncompressed 9600 bps.

Data Compression Protocols

MNP Level 6,7,9,10

Error Correction Protocols

V.42, V.42 bis
These -V Series- protocols are internationally recognized

standards for error control and data compression. V.42 is the recommendation of the ITU for error control; it contains two algorithms (LAPM, or Link Access Protocol, and MNP 1-4). When two V.42-compliant modems establish a connection, they use LAPM to control data errors and retransmit -bad- data blocks. If one modem supports V.42 and the other supports only MNP, then the two negotiate to use MNP protocol. V.42 bis corresponds roughly to MNP Level 5. V.42 can usually generate a 4:1 ratio of data compression, depending on the type of file transmitted.

Error Correction Protocols

The other benefit of V.42 (or MNP 4) is that it can improve throughput. Before sending the data to a remote system, a modem with V.42 (or MNP 4) assembles the data into packets and during that process it is able to reduce the size of the data by stripping out the start and stop bits.

Error correction basics

In general, these protocols break down a file into a series of

packets containing a number of bytes from the original file. Some sort of additional data, normally a checksum or CRC, is added to each packet to indicate whether the packet encountered an error while being received . The packet is then sent to the remote system, which recomputes the checksum or CRC of the data and compares it to the received checksum or CRC to determine if it was received properly. If it was, the receiver sends back an ACK (acknowledgement) message, prompting the sender to send the next packet. If there was any problem, it instead sends a NAK (notacknowledged) message, and the sender resends the damaged packet.

Error correction basics

In general, these protocols break down a file into a series of

packets containing a number of bytes from the original file. Some sort of additional data, normally a checksum or CRC, is added to each packet to indicate whether the packet encountered an error while being received . The packet is then sent to the remote system, which recomputes the checksum or CRC of the data and compares it to the received checksum or CRC to determine if it was received properly. If it was, the receiver sends back an ACK (acknowledgement) message, prompting the sender to send the next packet. If there was any problem, it instead sends a NAK (notacknowledged) message, and the sender resends the damaged packet.

Cable Internet access

Cable Internet access, shortened to cable Internet is

a form of broadband Internet access that uses the cable television infrastructure. Like digital subscriber line and fiber to the premises services, cable Internet access provides network edge connectivity (last mile access) from the Internet service provider to an end user. It is integrated into the cable television infrastructure analogously to DSL which uses the existing telephone network.

DSL
A digital subscriber line (DSL) modem is a device

used to connect a computer or router to a telephone line which provides the digital subscriber line service for connectivity to the Internet, which is often called DSL broadband.

ADSL

More of the bandwidth of the line is dedicated to

downstream (download) data than upstream (upload) data, so, download rates are faster than upload rates, because most users download much larger quantities of data than they upload. The most widely available ADSL service today has rates of 1.5 Mbit/s download and 64 to 640 kbit/s upload. The distance limit for ADSL is 18 000 feet (5.5 km or 3.4 miles).

Mobile Broadband Modem

A mobile broadband modem, also known as a

connect card or data card, is a type of modem that allows a laptop, a personal computer or a router to receive Internet access via a mobile broadband connection instead of using telephone or cable television lines. A mobile Internet user can connect using a wireless modem to a wireless Internet Service Provider (ISP) to get Internet access.

Mobile Broadband Modem

General packet radio service (GPRS) is a packet

oriented mobile data service on the 2G and 3G cellular communication system's global system for mobile communications (GSM). GPRS was originally standardized by European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) in response to the earlier CDPD and i-mode packet-switched cellular technologies. It is now maintained by the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP).

Mobile Broadband Modem

1G-2.4 kilobit per second (kbit/s) or less.

2G- digital, and offered faster dial-up speeds of

9.6kbit/s or 14.4kbit/s without the need for a separate modem. 3G networks have taken this approach to a higher level, using different underlying technology but the same principles. They routinely provide speeds over 300kbit/s

HSDPA
High-Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA) is an

enhanced 3G (third-generation) mobile-telephony communications protocol in the High-Speed Packet Access (HSPA) family, also dubbed 3.5G, 3G+ or turbo 3G, which allows networks based on Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) to have higher data-transfer speeds and capacity. As of 2013 HSDPA deployments can support down-link speeds of up to 42.3 Mbit/s. HSPA+ offers further speed increases, providing speeds of up to 337.5 Mbit/s with Release 11 of the 3GPP standards.

LTE (4G)
LTE, an acronym for Long Term Evolution,

commonly marketed as 4G LTE, is a standard for wireless communication of high-speed data for mobile phones and data terminals. It is based on the GSM/EDGE and UMTS/HSPA network technologies, increasing the capacity and speed using a different radio interface together with core network improvements. Data speeds of LTE Advanced Up to 100 Mbits/s LTE Advanced Peak download 1 Gbit/s LTE AdvancedPeak upload 500 Mbit/s

In Summary
ITU specified protocols with respect to modems exist

for the following.

Modulation Error correction Data compression

Different protocols apply to different speeds of

communication A high speed modem can communicate with a low speed modem