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Signal propagation effects Signal scattering ( antenna phase center/multipath ) Atmospheric delay ( parameterization, mapping functions ) Unmodeled motions of the station Monument instability / local groundwater Loading of the crust by atmosphere, oceans, and surface water One-sided geometry increases vertical uncertainties relative to horizontal and makes the vertical more sensitive to session length
Left: Phase residuals versus elevation for Westford pillar, without (top) and with (bottom) microwave absorber. Right: Change in height estimate as a function of minimum elevation angle of observations; solid line is with the unmodified pillar, dashed with microwave absorber added
Antenna Ht 0.15 m
Multipath contributions to observed phase for three different antenna heights [From Elosegui et al, 1995]
GPS adjustments to atmospheric zenith delay for 29 June, 2003; southern Vancouver Island (ALBH) and northern coastal California (ALEN). Estimates at 2-hr intervals.
Percent difference (red) between hydrostatic and wet mapping functions for a high latitude (dav1) and mid-latitude site (nlib). Blue shows percentage of observations at each elevation angle. From Tregoning and Herring [2006].
Difference between a) surface pressure derived from standard sea level pressure and the mean surface pressure derived from the GPT model.
c) Relation between a priori pressure differences and height differences. Elevation-dependent weighting was used in the GPS analysis with a minimum elevation angle of 7 deg.
Differences in GPS estimates of ZTD at Algonquin, Ny Alessund, Wettzell and Westford computed using static or observed surface pressure to derive the a priori. Height differences will be about twice as large. (Elevationdependent weighting used).
Atmosphere (purple) 2-5 mm Snow/water (blue) 2-10 mm Nontidal ocean (red) 2-3 mm
Vertical (a) and north (b) displacements from pressure loading at a low-latitude site (S. Africa). Bottom is power spectrum. From Petrov and Boy (2004)
Vertical (a) and north (b) displacements from pressure loading at a mid-latitude site (Germany). Bottom is power spectrum.
Atmosphere (purple) 2-5 mm Snow/water (blue) 2-10 mm Nontidal ocean (red) 2-3 mm
Station height estimates for Rio Grande, Argentina, using pressure from heightcorrected STP, GPT and actual observations (MET). Dashed black line shows observed surface pressure; pink line shows atmospheric pressure loading deformation (corrected for in the GPS analyses) , offset by 2.07 m.
Correlation between estimates of height and zenith delay as function of minimum elevation angle observed (VLBI, from Davis [1986])
Uncertainty in estimated height as function of minimum elevation angle observed (VLBI, from Davis [1986]; dotted line with no zenith delay estimated)
Height (red: simulated; black: estimated) and ZTD (green: simulated; blue: estimated) errors versus latitude as a function of error in surface pressure used to calculate the a priori ZHD. Uniform 10 mm data weighting applied.
Height (black/blue) and ZTD (red/green) errors at Davis, Antarctica, for different elevation cutoff angles as a function of error in surface pressure used to calculate the a priori ZHD.. Results shown for both elevation-dependent (blue and red results) and constant data weighting (black and green).