Theory of Computation Subject code: 160704

Text and Reference book

Text Book
Introduction To Languages And Theory Of Computation By John C !artin" Third #dition" T!$ Reference Books % Automata Theory" Languages and Computation" $opcroft" !ot&ani" '((man" )earson #ducation * Theory of automata" Langusges and computation" +umar" !c,ra$i(( - The Theory of Computation" !oret" )earson #ducation . Introduction to Computer Theory" Cohen" /i(ey0India
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Computation

C)'

memory

temporary memory input memory C)' output memory )rogram memory

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#xamp(e1
temporary memory

f ( x) = x

input memory C)' )rogram memory compute compute output memory

xx x x
2
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f ( x) = x
temporary memory

input memory

x=2
C)' )rogram memory compute compute output memory

xx x x
2
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temporary memory

z = 2*2 = 4 f ( x) = z * 2 = 8

f ( x) = x

input memory

x=2
C)' )rogram memory compute compute output memory

xx x x
2
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temporary memory

z = 2*2 = 4 f ( x) = z * 2 = 8

f ( x) = x

input memory

x=2
C)' )rogram memory compute compute

f ( x) = 8
output memory

xx x x
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Automaton
temporary memory Automaton C)' output memory )rogram memory
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input memory

2ifferent +inds of Automata

Automata are distinguished by the temporary memory Finite Automata1 Pushdown Automata1 Turing Machines1 no temporary memory stack random access memory

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3inite Automaton
temporary memory

3inite Automaton

input memory output memory

4ending !achines 5sma(( computing po&er6

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)ushdo&n Automaton
Stack )ush" )op

)ushdo&n Automaton

input memory output memory

)rogramming Languages 5medium computing po&er6

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Turing !achine
Random Access !emory

Turing !achine

input memory output memory

A(gorithms

5highest computing po&er6

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)o&er of Automata

3inite Automata

)ushdo&n Automata

Turing !achine

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/e &i(( sho& (ater in c(ass

$o& to bui(d compi(ers for programming (anguages 7ome computationa( prob(ems cannot be so(8ed 7ome prob(ems are hard to so(8e

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!athematica( )re(iminaries

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!athematica( )re(iminaries
7ets 3unctions Re(ations )roof Techni9ues

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7#T7
A set is a co((ection of e(ements

A = {1, 2, 3} B = {train, bus, bicycle, airplane}

/e &rite

1 A ship B
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7et Representations
C : ; a" b" c" d" e" f" g" h" i" <" k = C : ; a" b" >" k = 7 : ; *" ." ?" > =

finite set infinite set

7 : ; < 1 < @ A" and < : *k for some k@A = 7 : ; < 1 < is nonnegati8e and e8en =
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A : ; %" *" -" ." B =

'
? C %A 'ni8ersa( 7et1 % .

A
* B E D

A(( possib(e e(ements ' : ; % " > " %A =

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7et Operations
A : ; %" *" - = 'nion A ' B : ; %" *" -" ." B = Intersection A 2ifference A0B:;%= B 0 A : ; ." B =
A0B
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B : ; *" -" ." B=

A B

'

B : ; *" - =

 Comp(ement 'ni8ersa( set : ;%" >" C= A : ; %" *" - = . A : ; ." B" ?" C=

A
% B

A
*

A:A
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; e8en integers = : ; odd integers = Integers %

odd

* -

e8en

? C

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2e!organFs La&s
' A'B:A ' A B

B:A'B

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#mpty" Gu(( 7et1

:;= 7' 7 ' :7 : :7 07: : 'ni8ersa( 7et

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7ubset
A : ; %" *" -= A B B : ; %" *" -" ." B =

' '

)roper 7ubset1 A

B B

A
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2is<oint 7ets
A : ; %" *" - = ' A B: B : ; B" ?=

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7et Cardina(ity
3or finite sets A : ; *" B" C = HAH : -

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)o&ersets
A po&erset is a set of sets 7 : ; a" b" c = )o&erset of 7 : the set of a(( the subsets of 7 *7 : ; " ;a=" ;b=" ;c=" ;a" b=" ;a" c=" ;b" c=" ;a" b" c= = 5 D : *- 6
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Obser8ation1 H *7 H : *H7H

Cartesian )roduct
A : ; *" . = B : ; *" -" B =

A I B : ; 5*" *6" 5*" -6" 5*" B6" 5 ." *6" 5." -6" 5." .6 = HA I BH : HAH HBH ,enera(iJes to more than t&o sets AIBI>IK

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3'GCTIOG7
domain A % * f 1 A 0@ B f5%6 : a b range B a c

If A : domain

then f is a tota( function other&ise f is a partia( function

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R#LATIOG7
R : ;5x%" y%6" 5x*" y*6" 5x-" y-6" >= xi R yi e g if R : L@F1 * @ %" - @ *" - @ %

In re(ations xi can be repeated

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#9ui8a(ence Re(ations
Ref(exi8e1 7ymmetric1 Transiti8e1 #xamp(e1 R : L:L x:x x:y x : y and y : J y:x x:J
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xRx xRy yRx xRJ x R M and y R J

#9ui8a(ence C(asses
3or e9ui8a(ence re(ation R e9ui8a(ence c(ass of x : ;y 1 x R y= #xamp(e1 R : ; 5%" %6" 5*" *6" 5%" *6" 5*" %6" 5-" -6" 5." .6" 5-" .6" 5." -6 = #9ui8a(ence c(ass of % : ;%" *= #9ui8a(ence c(ass of - : ;-" .=
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)ROO3 T#C$GIN'#7
)roof by induction )roof by contradiction

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Induction
/e ha8e statements )%" )*" )-" > If &e kno& for some k that )%" )*" >" )k are true for any n @: k that )%" )*" >" )n imp(y )nO% Then #8ery )i is true
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)roof by Induction
Inducti8e basis 3ind )%" )*" >" )k &hich are true Inducti8e hypothesis LetFs assume )%" )*" >" )n are true" for any n @: k Inducti8e step 7ho& that )nO% is true
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#xamp(e
Theorem1 A binary tree of height n has at most *n (ea8es )roof1 (et (5i6 be the number of (ea8es at (e8e( i (5A6 : %

(5-6 : D

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/e &ant to sho&1 (5i6 P: *i Inducti8e basis (5A6 : % 5the root node6

Inducti8e hypothesis LetFs assume (5i6 P: *i for a(( i : A" %" >" n Induction step &e need to sho& that (5n O %6 P: *nO%
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Induction 7tep

Le8e( n nO%

hypothesis1 (5n6 P: *n

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Induction 7tep

Le8e( n nO%

hypothesis1 (5n6 P: *n

(5nO%6 P: * Q (5n6 P: * Q *n : *nO%

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Remark
Recursion is another thing #xamp(e of recursi8e function1 f5n6 : f5n0%6 O f5n0*6 f5A6 : %" f5%6 : %
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)roof by Contradiction
/e &ant to pro8e that a statement ) is true &e assume that ) is fa(se then &e arri8e at an incorrect conc(usion therefore" statement ) must be true

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#xamp(e
Theorem1 )roof1 Assume by contradiction that it is rationa(

is not rationa(

: nRm

n and m ha8e no common factors /e &i(( sho& that this is impossib(e

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: nRm

* m * : n*

Therefore" n* is e8en

n is e8en n:*k m is e8en m:*p

* m* : .k*

m* : *k*

Thus" m and n ha8e common factor *

ontradiction!

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