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"Never promise more than you can perform." -Publius Syrus (42 B.C.

) "A verbal contract isnt worth the paper it is written on." -Samuel Goldwyn (18821974) Groucho: "That's in every contract, that's what you call a sanity clause." Chico: "You can't a fool a me, there ain't no sanity clause" -Groucho/Chico in A Night at the Opera (movie)

What is a contract? What promises should be enforced? What should be the remedy for breaking enforceable promises?

Components of a classic bargain


Offer Acceptance Consideration
What the promisee gives the promisor to induce the promise.

A bargain should have reciprocal inducement A promise lacks reciprocal inducement A contract typically entails delayed performance

Money Goods Services A promise

A bargain requires cooperation. A contract may not exists because cooperation is lacking
Nothing given by one party - gift Confused promise Deception
The remedy may be criminal or tort actions When does withholding information constitute deception?

A breach creates an incomplete bargain


Either or both parties can breach

Promisee is entitled to the benefit of the bargain The economic measure of damages is expectation damages
Restores the victim to the where he or she would have been if the contract was completed Not necessarily the same as what the victim expected at the beginning of the contract

Bargain theory may not enforce contracts that people want enforced, particularly if no consideration is given
Law that frustrates the desires of people is dogmatic Law that satisfies desires is responsive

A theory of law based upon Pareto efficiency is responsive


Economic efficiency requires enforcement of a promise that both parties wanted when it was made Enforces contracts that the parties want enforced (Courts may not enforce liquidated damages clauses. This is dogmatic.)
Liquidated damages contractually specified dollar penalties for breach

A contract typically creates a deferred exchange


Deferred exchanges create uncertainty and risk Unforeseen circumstances may change the benefits of the bargain
Fortuitous circumstances Unfortuitous circumstances

Unenforceable promises involve risk


Enforcing the promises reduces the risk of the contract.

To enable people to convert games with inefficient solutions to games with efficient solutions

Avoid prisoners dilemma

To encourage the efficient disclosure of information within the contractual relationship.


Promotes efficient investment in information

To secure optimal commitment to performing.


Encourages optimal reliance Require disclosure or allow non-disclosure

To minimize transaction costs of negotiating contracts by supplying efficient default terms and regulations Encourage non-contractual cooperation

Investment of $1 could produce $2. The investor is promised $1.50 Payoff is difference in wealth before and after

Cooperate Invest Dont Invest .5, .5 0, 0

Appropriate -1.0, 1.0 0,0

Investment of $1 could produce $2. The investor is promised $1.50 Payoff is difference in wealth before and after

Cooperate
Invest Dont Invest .5, .5 0, 0

Appropriate
.5, -.5 0,0

They restore the promisee to the position he would have been in had the promise been kept.

Does not necessarily coincide with initial expectations concerning the non-contractual environment Unexpected circumstances may change the relative benefits from the contract and change perfect expectations damages

Perfect expectation damages provide incentives for efficient performance and breach

They cause the promisor to internalize the costs of breach Leave the victim indifferent between performance and breach Create incentive for Pareto optimal decisions

The opportunity to appropriate is foreclosed by the high cost of liability for breach A commitment is credible when the other party observes the foreclosing of an opportunity.

What is the appropriate remedy for breaking enforceable promises? Purpose is secure optimal commitment and provide for optimal breaches Optimal commitment exists when the joint profits from performance are greater than the joint profits from breach It is optimal to breach when the joint profits from a breach are greater than the joint profits with commitment.

It is optimal to breach when the party breaching is better off because of the breach and the victim is no worse off given the breach.

Promisors cost of performing > promisors liability for breaching, then breach Promisors cost of performing < promisors liability for breaching, then perform

Promisors cost of performing > promisees benefit --- then it is efficient to breach Promisors cost of performing < promisees benefit --- then it is efficient to perform

There is an efficient incentive for breaching when liability is equal to promisees foregone benefit Expectation damages

Perform Cooperating cost 0 invest .5,.5

Perform Cooperating cost 1.5 .5,-1.0

Breach and pay .5,-.5

Dont invest

0,0

0,0

0,0

If invested with no breach, a $1 investment returns $1

A promises B the future delivery of widgets for $10. B expects to earn $2 in profits if the widgets are delivered If the widgets are not delivered B will earn zero profits A locates an alternate offer from C of $15 for the widgets Is it efficient for A to breach?

What decision allocates the resource to its most highly valued use?

They restore the promisee to the position he would have been in had the promise been kept. (This is not necessarily the same position he expected when he entered into the contract.) Perfect expectation damages provide incentives for efficient performance and breach They cause the promisor to internalize the costs of breach Leave the victim indifferent between performance and breach

Damages replace the value of a lost opportunity Leave victims indifferent between breach and performance given the best alternative contract

In perfectly competitive markets there is no difference between perfect expectation damages and opportunity cost damages

They place the victim in the position he would have been in had he taken the next best opportunity

Places the victims in the position they would have been if they had never contracted with the other party Do not take into account lost opportunities. The promisor may invest in performance. The promisee may invest in reliance on the promise Reliance increases the gain from performance and the loss from breach.

Perfect expectation damages Opportunity cost damages Reliance damages

The plaintiff, George Hawkins, suffered a childhood accident that left a permanent scar on his hand. When Hawkins was 18 years old, his family physician, McGee, persuaded him to submit to an operation that the doctor asserted would restore the hand to perfection. In the operation, skin from the plaintiffs chest was grafted onto his hand. The result was hideous. The formerly small scar was enlarged, covered with hair, and irreversibly worse. Hawkins prevailed against McGee in a suit alleging that the doctor had broken his contractual promise to make the hand perfect.

Reliance damages
Opportunity cost damages Expectation damages

We, therefore, conclude that the true measure of the plaintiff's damage in the present case is the difference between the value to him of a perfect hand or a good hand, such as the jury found the defendant promised him, and the value of his hand in its present condition, including any incidental consequences fairly within the contemplation of the parties when they made their contract.
Expectation Damages

Aug 1999 Seaside Heights--A tattoo artist who draws better than he spells is in trouble with a customer who got more than he bargained for. The customer, Joseph Beahm of Woodbridge, wanted a tattoo on his right shoulder showing a knife stabbing into a man's back, with the words "Why Not, Everyone Else Does" accompanying it. But the tattoo artist, James Kastel of Body Art World, misspelled "else," making the tattoo read: "Why Not, Everyone Elese Does. Mr. Beahm wants the tattoo parlor to pay $2,100 for laser surgery to remove the misspelled word. The parlor offered Mr. Beahm his $100 back or alterations that would cover it up, but Mr. Beahm said no. Mr. Kastel said Mr. Beahm should have caught the mistake earlier. He was shown a rendering of the tattoo--including the mistake--before it was applied Aug. 7, Mr. Kastel said. Mr. Beahm says he wants to sue for $20,000 in damages. He is trying to hire a lawyer, he said yesterday. "Everywhere I go, people are making fun of me," Mr. Beahm said. http://www.cnn.com/US/9908/26/fringe/tattoo.update/

B pays $10,000 to D to deliver grain in London on October 1

B does not sign alternate contract for $10,500

D New Orleans Grain Dealer

D contracts with S to ship grain

B London Grain Speculator

B sells grain in forward market for $11,000 and pays $100 for non-refundable docking fee

Ship takes on water and returns. D sells spoiled grain for $500

D informs B who purchases grain for delivery on October 1 for $12,000

Expectation damages Opportunity cost damages Reliance damages

No Breach - Bs Expectation

Revenues Expenses
Grain $10,000 delivery 100

$11,000

Expected profit

-10,100 $ 900

With Breach Bs Profit Revenues Expenses Grain $10,000 delivery 100 Replacement Grain 12,000 Loss

$11,000

-22,100 -$ 11,100

Expectation Damages Loss Expectations Damages

-$ 11,100 12,000 Profits $ 900 Return victim to same profits that would exist without breach Suppose the $100 docking fee had been refunded. Suppose D did not sell grain in the forward market.

With Breach Bs Profit (no futures contract)


Revenues (value on Oct. 1) Expenses Grain delivery Loss $10,000 100 -10,100 -$ 11,100 $12,000

Breach with opportunity cost damages Revenues Expenses $11,000

Grain
delivery Profit

$10,500
100 -10,600 $ 400 -$ 11,100 11,500 Profits $ 400

Opportunity Cost Damage


Loss Opportunity Cost Damages

Return victim to profits that would have been earned on next best opportunity

Breach with reliance damages Return cost of grain Return loss on delivery Return loss on sale $ 10,000 100 1,000 $ 11,100 -$ 11,100 11,100 $0

Loss Reliance damages

Profits Return victim to profits that would have existed without contract

Expectation Damages

$ 12,000

Opportunity Cost Damages $ 11,500

Reliance Damages

$ 11,100

Reliance Costs
Rented dock Sold grain in forward market
Should the New Orleans grain dealer be responsible for Londons speculative losses? Should it matter whether he knew that B was a speculator?

Jan. 1 A contracts to deliver a widget to B on June 1 at a price of $2

April 1 A breaches and informs B of breach. B can purchase a widget for immediate delivery for $3, or contract with C to deliver on June 1 at $3.25. B does not do either

June 1 B sues A and wins perfect expectation damages. At this time B can buy a widget for $4 How should the damages be computed?

Price on June 1 Promised delivered price on June 1 Damages Breach on April 1 Price on April 1 for immediate delivery Promised delivered price on June 1 Damages (Carrying costs not included) Price on April 1 for delivery on June 1 Promised delivered price on June 1 Damages

$ $

4.00 2.00 2.00

$ $ $

3.00 2.00 1.00 3.25 2.00 1.25

Think about the ease of finding substitute performance in each situation. Clearly, the law ought to encourage B to purchase the substitute widget after A repudiates at the lowest alternative price. (This is called mitigating damages.) Note: This places the responsibility on B to remedy the uncertainty that A has created. A could just as well mitigate damages.

Price on June 1 Promised delivered price on June 1 Damages Breach on April 1 Price on April 1 for immediate delivery Promised delivered price on June 1 Damages Price on April 1 for delivery on June 1 Promised delivered price on June 1 Damages

3.00 2.00 1.00

$
$ $

3.00 2.00 1.00 3.25 2.00 1.25

If A wanted to accept the risk, he could have purchased product for delivery for June 1 on June 1

How should damages be calculated? A ticket refund A ticket on an alternative flight Are the expectation damages foreseeable?

There is no compensation if alternative transportation gets the passenger to the destination within one hour of the original scheduled arrival.

The equivalent of the passenger's one way fare up to a maximum of $400 for substitute domestic flights that arrive between one and two hours after the original scheduled arrival time or for substitute international flights that arrive between one and four hours after the original scheduled arrival time.

If the substitute transportation is scheduled to get you to your destination more than two hours later (four hours internationally), or if the airline does not make any substitute travel arrangements for you, the compensation doubles to a maximum of $800.

A promise is made, then time elapses During this time - promisor might incur costs associated with performing (investing in performing)

- promisee might incur costs associated with the anticipation of the promise being fulfilled (invest in reliance)
Reliance costs - costs incurred by the promisee in order to increase the utility, profits, etc. resulting from the fulfilment of the contract

The investments in performance and reliance might take the form of time, effort, money or foregone alternatives

Reliance increases the benefits of the bargain Reliance increases expectation damages Should all reliance costs be reimbursed? Can there be overreliance?

Question? How much reliance should a promisee place on the fulfilment of the contract? What is optimal reliance?

For want of a nail the shoe was lost. For want of a shoe the horse was lost. For want of a horse the rider was lost. For want of a rider the battle was lost. For want of a battle the kingdom was lost. And all for the want of a horseshoe nail
Should the blacksmith be liable for the loss of the kingdom?

Because the stationary wasnt delivered The envelope was not mailed Therefore the payment for raw materials was not received Therefore the raw materials were not delivered Therefore the factory shut down Should the delivery boy be liable? If not, why not?

Operations at the plaintiffs mill were halted because of a broken crank shaft. The plaintiff ordered delivery of a new crank shaft from the defendant. The plaintiffs employee told the clerk that a new shaft had to be delivered immediately. The clerk promised delivery by the next day. Because of neglect the shaft was not delivered for several days. As a consequence, the mill remained stopped and the plaintiff experienced substantial lost profits. The mill owner sued for breach of contract requesting the lost profits from shutting down the factory. Should the delivery company be responsible for the mills lost profits? Should it matter whether the losses were foreseeable? Why?

''There are certain established rules according to which the jury ought to find and here there is a clear rule, that the amount which would have been received if the contract had been kept, is the measure of damages if the contract is broken. Now we think the proper rule in such a case as the present is this: Where two parties have made a contract which one of them has broken, the damages which the other party ought to receive in respect of such breach of contract should be such as may fairly and reasonably be considered either arising naturally, i.e., according to the usual course of things, from such breach of contract itself, or such as may reasonably be supposed to have been in the contemplation of both parties, at the time they made the contract, as the probable result of the breach of it. Now, if the special circumstances under which the contract was actually made were communicated by the plaintiffs to the defendants, and thus known to both parties, the damages resulting from the breach of such a contract, which they would reasonably contemplate, would be the amount of injury which would ordinarily follow from a breach of contract under these special circumstances so known and communicated. But, on the other hand, if these special circumstances were wholly unknown to the party breaking the contract, he, at the most, could only be supposed to have had in his contemplation the amount of injury which would arise generally, and in the great multitude of cases not affected by any special circumstances, from such a breach of contract.

All the plaintiffs told the defendants at the time the contract was made, were, that the article to be carried was the broken shaft of a mill, and that the plaintiffs were the millers of that mill. Other possible reasons for the delivery

A back up shaft was ordered Other parts of the machinery were also defective

The Judge ought, therefore, to have told the jury, that upon the facts then before them they ought not to take the loss of profits into consideration at all in estimating the damages.

Simple expectation damages provide an incentive for overreliance. A sophisticated measure takes optimal reliance as a baseline for damages. How should optimal reliance be determined?

The expected gain from additional reliance (increase in value of performance x the probability of performance.)

Expected savings from not having backup given the probability the part will be delivered on time
The expected loss from additional reliance (the increase in the loss from the breach x the probability of breach)

Expected loss of profits from plant shut down given the probability the part may not be delivered on time

Optimal where marginal gain equal to marginal loss

In Hadley the expected savings from not having a backup were less than the expected loss from a plant shut down.

Optimal reliance is high when performance is certain. Optimal reliance is low when performance is uncertain

An example: Boy Scout Apple Day


During the Summer, the Boy Scouts contract with Farmer Jones to buy 100 bushels of apples for their fall Apple Day promotion they pay $500 for 100 bushels which they expect to sell for $1,000 ($500 profit)

The Boy Scouts realize that the probability that Farmer Jones will not be able to supply the apples is 0.25 (25% due to hail, drought, etc.) The Boy Scouts also know that their Apple Day will generate an additional $400 in revenue if they spend $150 in promotion (signs, TV ads, soliciting corporate sponsors, etc.). Net gain from reliance is $250 ($400 $150)

Should the Boy Scouts undertake the promotion? Is it an optimizing investment? [in addition, is it an efficient investment?]

We know: - increase in value of performance from reliance is $250 = $400 $150 - probability of performance is 0.75 (1 - 0.25) - increase in cost of breach from reliance is $150 - probability of breach is 0.25
Expected gain to promisee from reliance: ($250) x (0.75) = $187.50 Expected loss to promisee from breach: ($150) x (0.25) = $37.50 Yes, the Boy Scouts should undertake this investment in reliance since their expected gain from reliance is greater than their expected loss from reliance

Calculating damages The Boy Scouts expect to gain $650 from Apple Day.
Revenue = $1,000 plus $400 (from reliance) LESS: Costs $1,400

Apples Investment in reliance

$500 $150

Total costs
Profit

$ 650
$ 750

What if the Boy Scouts make the above contract and farmer Jones breaches the contract? What are optimal damages?

Calculating damages What would perfect expectation damages be? Original investment (payment to Farmer) Investment in reliance Expected gain after optimal reliance Perfect expectation damages $ 150 $ 750 $1,400 $ 500

Reliance by the promisee is foreseeable by the promisor if it equals the amount the promisor could reasonably expect. Should the promisor be held liable for unforeseeable losses?

Unforeseen events do not affect behavior Unforeseen events do not influence economic incentives

Forseeability helps defines overreliance Overreliance is unforeseeable and hence not compensable Which party could have avoided the loss at the least cost?

Reliance increases the profitability of performance, but also increases the liability from breach If all reliance costs are compensated there is an incentive for overreliance

Simple expectation Sophisticated expectation Perfect expectation

Damages are equal to expectations regardless whether reliance is high or low. Probability of breach is ignored. Heavy reliance regardless of probability of breach. Over reliance causes excessive harm from breach.

Damages that would have occurred had I undertaken optimal reliance. I am not fully reimbursed for my losses if my reliance was based upon an unrealistic probability of performance.

Perfect expectation damages should equal sophisticated expectation damages Damages needed to restore the promisee who relied optimally to the position he would have enjoyed if the promise had been kept The law discourages overreliance by limiting damages

B pays $10,000 to D to deliver grain in London on October 1

B does not sign alternate contract for $10,500

D New Orleans Grain Dealer

D contracts with S to ship grain

B London Grain Speculator

B sells grain in forward market for $11,000 and pays $100 for docking fee

Ship takes on water and returns. D sells spoiled grain for $500

D informs B who purchases grain for delivery on October 1 for $12,000

Did the London grain dealer over rely? Who could have avoided the loss at the least possible cost?

D or B could have purchased insurance on the shipment to reimburse at market value B could purchase option to buy in forward market

Was Bs loss foreseeable to D?


What is custom in the industry? Is grain to arrive typically sold in the forward market?

Restitution Disgorgement Liquidated damages Specific Performance

Return what was given Return of down payment Minimal damages Less than or equal to reliance damages

money back guarantee

Breaching party pays the injured part an amount equal to the promisors gain from the breach Damages paid to eliminate the injurers profit from the wrongdoing Injurer is indifferent between doing right and appropriating Eliminates incentive for efficient breach

Emphasizes trust which may be necessary for efficiently functioning financial markets Eliminates incentive for misuse of funds
Embezzlement

May not eliminate incentive for misappropriation of funds if the profit from breach > (the probability of being caught in breach of trust) x (the profit from breach of trust)

Punitive action may be needed to deter misappropriation

Opportunity cost to breaching party


Disgorgement

Opportunity cost to victim


Expectation damages

Other possibilities
The higher of the two Average market rate A rate stipulated by statute

Also called stipulated damages The contract stipulates a sum that will be paid upon breach Not enforced when it is out of line with the damages caused by the breach.

Punitive element may be considered payment on an insurance contract Liquidated damages convey information about promisors reliability Penalties may be restated as bonuses Performance bonds are another alternative

a sum of money, deposited with a third party, to be paid to the injured party in the case of breach

A court order which requires a party to perform a specific act (an equitable remedy) Requires promisor to do what was promised. Promisor may be released from the promise by the injured party May be useful when it is difficult to place a value on the breach (review injunction in property law)
Often used as a remedy in breaches of transferred assets

I contract to purchase an old home in a part of town undergoing gentrification. Between the contract and the closing on the home, the house burns down. I do not feel that other homes are perfect substitutes for this house. The market value and the contracted value on the home was $100,000. However, to rebuild the same home today would cost $250,000. I want the home rebuilt and request specific performance from the courts. The home is unique and I do not view any other existing home as a perfect substitute. Monetary Damages or Specific Performance?

Should the seller be ordered to rebuild the home, or pay me $150,000, the difference between my subjective value and market value, so that I can replace the home I did not buy?

Damage options
$0 $150,000 = $250,000 - $100,000 (estimated value) Specific performance

If the court awards specific performance and it is not really worth an extra $150,000 to me is there an opportunity for a Coasian bargain? Is it efficient to build a home at cost of $250,000 that only has a market value of $100,000?

Actual Cash Value (Market Value) or Replacement Cost? Specified in insurance contract Car (ACV = RC) Roof (ACV < RC) Old home (ACV < RC)

A owns the house and values living in the house at $90,000


B values living in the house at $110,000 and offers A $100,000

A accepts C values living in the house at $126,000 and offers A $118,000 What should A do? This will depend on the potential remedy

B offers $100,000

C offers $118,000

With zero transactions costs asset will find its way to the most valued user.

Remedy favors promisor when remedy is damages Remedy favors promisee when remedy is specific performance Efficiency only matters when transactions costs are positive. Specific performance involves two transactions With specific performance the court avoids the problem of valuation.

Claims by Defendants in Contract Disputes

Formation defenses (no contract exists)


Incapacity/Incompetence Coercion or Duress Mutual Mistake Fraud Unconsionability Only a promise

Performance excuses (contract exists, but performance should be excused)

Impossibility Frustration of Purpose

Temporary incompetence (Transactional incapacity)


High pressure sales tactics Cooling off period

Incompetence due to age, education or medical condition Competent contractual partners can usually protect the interests of incompetent contractual partners at less cost than anyone else

Duress Necessity Impossibility Frustration of purpose Mutual mistake about facts Mutual mistake about information

Must distinguish between forbidden threats and permitted demands

Duress involves extracting a promise by a threat (not Pareto optimal)

Enforcement of contract redistributes wealth from one person to another and does not create a cooperative surplus Failed bargains do not create; whereas failed coercion can destroy

Coercion causes investment in defense


By providing protection against threats the state channels resources from defense to production

Make him an offer he cant refuse

Domenico hired workers in San Francisco to work the fishing season at a cannery in Alaska for a contracted wage. When the workers got to Alaska they refused to work unless the received a new contract at a higher wage. Domenico had substantial funds invested in the cannery and had no way of replacing the striking workers. Consequently, it agreed to their demands. However, after the workers return to San Francisco the company refused to pay them the higher amount owed under the renegotiated contract.

Should the contract be enforced? Nothing to be gained by the agreement that was not already promised Enforcement discourages optimal performance

To permit plaintiff to recover under such circumstances would be to offer a premium upon bad faith, and invite men to violate their most sacred contracts that they may profit by their own wrong. That a promise to pay a man for doing that which he is already under contract to do is without consideration is conceded by respondents. The rule has been so long imbedded in the common law and decisions of the highest courts of the various states that nothing but the most cogent reasons ought to shake it. .

A baseball star signs a five-year contract for $1 million per year. In the third year the player hits more home runs than anyone else in the league. Now he demands to renegotiate his salary. Can the team owner sign a new contract for $2 million and then later claim duress? Does efficiency require the law to enforce the original contract or set it aside?

A promise extracted as the price to cooperate in creating value is enforceable, and a promise extracted by a threat to destroy is unenforceable

A destructive threat to breach a contract after reliance constitutes coercion in renegotiating the price.

A dire constraint imposed on the promisor by someone (something) other than the promisee

With duress dire constraint imposed by the promisor

Promisor threatens to destroy by not rescuing What is an efficient incentive for rescue when there is not a general duty to rescue?

Exceptions: emergency workers, parents, common carriers, employers

In 70 BC, an ambitious minor politician and extremely wealthy man, Marcus Licineus Crassus, wanted to rule Rome. Just to give you an idea of what sort of man Crassus really was, he is credited with invention of the fire brigade. But in Crassus' version, his fire-fighting slaves would race to the scene of a burning building whereupon Crassus would offer to buy it on the spot for a tiny fraction of it's worth. If the owner sold, Crassus' slaves would put out the fire. If the owner refused to sell, Crassus allowed the building to burn to the ground. By means of this device, Crassus eventually came to be the largest single private land holder in Rome, and used some of his wealth to help back Julius Caesar against Cicero. http://www.atriummedia.com/rogueclassicism/2003/12/28.html

Should the contract be set aside because it had been signed under duress? Should the law be dogmatic or responsive?

How much wealth may a promisor extract from a promisee in dire circumstances? Might the efficient answer depend on the marginal cost of the rescue?

What is the cooperative surplus? With competition could Crassus extract the same amount? What is the efficient price for this service? What is the difference between this and fire insurance? Modern version of a Crassus Auction

Who's Accountable for Madison County Balloon Accident Rescue Cost Hikers rescued from cliff: Who should cover the cost?*

Fortuitous rescue
Low cost accidental rescue

Anticipated rescue
Minimal resources allocated for possible rescue

Planned rescue
Substantial resources specifically used for rescue

The Richmond ran upon some rock while returning from a whaling voyage. The whaling ships Frith and Panama came upon the Richmond while she was floundering. They saved the crew and took on her cargo of whaling oil and whalebone after a forced auction. The price paid was considerably below the competitive market price. The captain of the Richmond claims that the auction was forced on him under duress and necessity. Therefore, this does not represent a valid sale. Should the auction be set aside on efficiency grounds? Is this similar to what Crassus did?
We want an incentive to rescue, assuming there is no duty to rescue the cargo. We want individuals to seek rescue.

With their hulls full the Firth and the Panama terminated the rest of their whaling voyage They were not required to save the cargo If the auction is invalid, how should the court determine appropriate compensation?

Decision
Richmond should receive an amount for its oil based on the market price, after allocating a fraction of the oil to the salvors and giving them credit for freight. The Panama and the Firth may have been deterred from taking on a full cargo from their whaling voyage, but this was uncertain. They could deposit their cargo at the first port of safety and continue their voyage. The salvage only delayed their voyage.

Comment
The court may impose a hypothetical contract that would have been entered into without necessity or duress If rescues are efficient, why are they not required by law?
Admiralty law requires rescue of lives without promise of reward, but not cargo.

Duress Necessity Impossibility Frustration of purpose Mutual mistake about facts Mutual mistake about information

Dire constraint follows the promise and prevents performance A contingency destroyed a basic assumption on which the contract was made Impossibility may leave a gap in the contract. Default rules applied by the court will remedy the gap.

Custom may determine the default rule Efficiency allocates risk to party who can bear it at the least cost.
Had the contingency been included in the contract, which party would have assumed the liability? (We might assume that custom is based on efficiency.)

Should a contingency be included in the contract or should there be a gap in the contract? Leave Gap
Cost of allocating a risk (contracting cost) > cost of allocating a loss (litigation cost) x probability of a loss

Fill Gap
Cost of allocating a risk (contracting cost)< cost of allocating a loss (litigation cost) x probability of a loss

Impute the terms to the contract that the parties would have agreed to if they bargained over the relative risk The court should respond to gaps by allocating risk efficiently and adjusting the price reasonably Which party can bear the risk more efficiently (at the lower cost)

Taylor rented the music hall for a concert. Between entering into the contract and the date of the performance the building was destroyed by fire. Since the performance was no longer possible, Taylor requested damages for the expenses he had incurred in advertising the concert and preparing for the concert. Should the owner be liable for Taylors losses? What is the efficient rule?

The principle seems to us to be that, in contracts in which the performance depends on the continued existence of a given person or thing, a condition is implied that the impossibility of performance arising from the perishing of the person or thing shall excuse the performance. That performance would not be required was an implied condition of the contract. [Does this assume optimal precautions by the theater owner?]

Where, after a contract is made, a partys performance is made impracticable without his fault by the occurrence of an event the non-occurrence of which was a basic assumption on which the contract was made, his duty to render that performance is discharged, unless the language or the circumstances indicate the contrary.

Duress Necessity Impossibility Frustration of purpose Mutual mistake about facts Mutual mistake about information

Contingency destroys the purpose of the contract Pointless performance does not serve the purpose that induced the parties to make the contract Assign liability to party who can bear risk at least cost.

An individual reserves a hall for a wedding. In the event that the wedding is called off, the value of the agreement would be destroyed. Even though the promisee could still literally perform the obligation by reserving and providing the hall for the wedding, the purpose for which the contract was entered into was defeated. Apart from a nonrefundable deposit fee, the promisor is ordinarily discharged from any contractual duty to rent the hall.

Where, after a contract is made, a party's principal purpose is substantially frustrated without his fault by the occurrence of an event the non-occurrence of which was a basic assumption on which the contract was made, his remaining duties to render performance are discharged, unless the language or circumstances [of the contract] indicate the contrary.

You enter into a purchase contract to obtain land for a business. The city government rezones the land as residential Does enforcement of the contract enhance efficiency?

Henry agreed by contract to rent a flat for the purpose of watching the coronation procession of Edward VII The King fell ill and the coronation was cancelled. The coronation was an implied condition when the contract was made. The cancellation could not have been reasonably expected by either party.

Duress Necessity Impossibility Frustration of purpose Mutual mistake about facts Mutual mistake about information

Different from unilateral mistake No true exchange because the expected cooperative surplus was based on a false premise.

Walker, the seller, represented that his cow, Rose 2d of Aberlone, was infertile. When Sherwood, the buyer, came to pick up the cow, Walker refused to deliver her on the ground that she was pregnant. Walker claimed that both he and Sherwood were mistaken about the cows fertility, and so the contract should be void. Sherwood contended that this was an instance of unilateral mistake. What role should price play in this analysis?

If the cow was a breeder, she was worth at least $750; if barren, she was worth not over $80. The parties would not have made the contract of sale except upon the understanding and belief that she was incapable of breeding, and of no use as a cow. It is true she is now the identical animal that they thought her to be when the contract was made; there is no mistake as to the identity of the creature. Yet the mistake was not of the mere quality of the animal, but went to the very nature of the thingIf the mutual mistake had simply related to the fact whether she was with calf or not for one season, then it might have been a good sale, but the mistake affected the character of the animal for all time, and for its present and ultimate use. She was not in fact the animal, or the kind of animal, the defendants intended to sell or the plaintiff to buy.

Contracts should lead to the efficient disclosure and transmission of information Problems

The value of information can only be fully determined after it is disclosed Asymmetrical information can produce unfair bargains (Get rich quick schemes) Information is a quasi public good

Unilateral mistake Duty to disclose Fraud and misrepresentation

Mutual mistakes are usually not enforced Mutual mistakes destroy value Unilateral mistake promotes efficiency Courts usually enforce bargains based upon unilateral mistake Rewards discovery

Immediately preceding the purchase, Organ had been informed that the Americans and the British had signed the Treaty of Ghent. This would have a positive impact on the price of tobacco. Not knowing the treaty had been signed; Laidlaw sold the tobacco at the lower pre-treaty price. Was this fraud? Given the unilateral information is there a valid contract? Did the plaintiff have the duty to inform the defendant of the recent news?

A duty to inform would reduce the return to discovery The other party is a free rider How would we determine sufficient disclosure? Does the failure to disclose destroy value or only redistribute value?

What about insider trading?


Productive information promotes efficiency Redistributive information does not

Was the information the result of investment?


Most have mixed redistributive and productive results

Information disclosure can be required by the contracting parties

Health insurance policies typically require disclosure of preexisting conditions

Acquired through active investment Productive information


Efficient not to disclose

Acquired casually or inadvertently


Not efficient to protect

Redistributive information

Inefficient to protect (Insider trading: costs resources and produces no net benefit for society)

No particular efficiency effect

Every contract imposes upon each party a duty of good faith and fair dealing in its performance and its enforcement.
This may impose a duty to disclose information when failure to disclose increases the cost of performance.

The California Supreme Court affirmed the ruling of the Court of Appeal, holding that a contractor on a public works project may be entitled to relief for a public entitys nondisclosure in the following limited circumstances:

(1) the contractor submitted its bid or undertook to perform without material information that affected performance costs; (2) the public entity was in possession of the information and was aware the contractor had no knowledge of, nor any reason to obtain, such information; (3) any contract specifications or other information furnished by the public entity to the contractor misled the contractor or did not put it on notice to inquire; and (4) the public entity failed to provide the relevant information.

Note that this information was not acquired by active investment. Lack of information may not only be redistributive, but also waste resources.

Should the law compel information revelation? Or should the law protect the incentive to develop information by not compelling revelation? The prevailing rule is to require disclosure of latent defects.

Safety information helps people to avoid harm


Example: selling a car with defective brakes without telling buyer.

Failure to disclose diminishes welfare

Seller of home knew of termite infestation, but failed to disclose The seller gave the termites the opportunity to cause further destruction. Failure to disclose caused further harm.

Fraud requires a lie


A deceptive act or statement deliberately made by one person in an attempt to gain an unfair advantage over another. It can be based on
an action; failure to act; and concealment or silence.

Penalizing fraud reduces the cost of contracting


Saves verification costs

Puffery is not fraud


Expression of an opinion

Defense against the enforcement of a contract because the conditions were unfair to one party

It offends the conscience of the court The terms appear grossly unfair to one of the parties One party would not voluntarily have accepted the terms. Therefore, they must either be incompetent or a victim of distress (duress or necessity).

Infers distress from the terms of the contract.

Lesion a contract which is too unequal to

enforce

Procedural
Focuses on unfairness at the formation of the contract
Inequality in bargaining power
Monopoly power

Unfair surprise

Terms highly favorable to one party Lack of mutuality

Use of incomprehensible or legalistic fine-print standard form contract provisions; Inequality between parties due to factors like age or illiteracy Switching contract documents at the last moment to include non-negotiated, one-sided terms; Pressuring signature on a contract before client can read it, or rushing the signing at a time when the consumer is vulnerable; Purposefully selecting impoverished consumers to target for sales.

Substantive
Procedural unconscionability often results in substantive unconscionability. Unreasonably favorable to one party Disproportionate price (price above opportunity cost?) Economic analysis might determine whether the bargain was one sided by determining whether there was a legitimate business justification for the contract terms.
Is it efficiency enhancing?

Limitations or waiver of remedy clauses; Disclaimer of warranties or limitation of damages liquidated damages clauses; Arbitration clauses Notice requirements; Blanket security interests; Excessive price terms where there is a gross disparity between price and value; Clauses authorizing venue or jurisdiction in distant forums; waiver of right to jury trial.

2-302. Unconscionable contract or Clause.


(1) If the court as a matter of law finds the contract or any clause of the contract to have been unconscionable at the time it was made the court may refuse to enforce the contract, or it may enforce the remainder of the contract without the unconscionable clause, or it may so limit the application of any unconscionable clause as to avoid any unconscionable result. (2) When it is claimed or appears to the court that the contract or any clause thereof may be unconscionable the parties shall be afforded a reasonable opportunity to present evidence as to its commercial setting, purpose and effect to aid the court in making the determination.

Drawn up by one party and presented to the other on a take it or leave it basis Party presented with the contract has little power Standard form contracts can increase the efficiency of exchange The term contract of adhesion should not be applied to all standard form contracts

Analysis begins with an inquiry into whether the contract is one of adhesion Two judicially imposed limitations on adhesion contracts (See Jaramillo)

A contract or provision which does not fall within the reasonable expectations of the weaker or "adhering" party will not be enforced against him. A contract or provision, even if consistent with the reasonable expectations of the parties, will be denied enforcement if, considered in its context, it is unduly oppressive or "unconscionable."

..Lawyers frequently distinguish between substantive and procedural unconscionability. Substantive unconscionability usually refers to a price that is utterly disproportionate to market value. In contrast, procedural unconscionability consists of circumstances and procedures in the bargain that violate widely-accepted norms of fairness. Thus, substantive unconscionability refers to the terms or results of the contract whereas procedural unconscionability refers to the circumstances and procedures under which the contract was formed. Substantive and procedural unconscionability are often combined in actual cases because an unfair procedure frequently results in an unfair price. Instead of thinking of substantive and procedural unconscionability as types of cases, it is better to think of them as different aspects of the same case.

A clause in a loan contracts that determines the default conditions on the loan The amount borrowed on the most recent purchase is added to the amount borrowed from previous purchases If the borrower defaults on the loan, all of the goods for which credit was extended may be repossessed to pay for the remaining balance on the loan.

On April 17, 1962, appellant Williams bought a stereo set of stated value of $514.95. She too defaulted shortly thereafter, and appellee sought to replevy all the items purchased since December, 1957. The record reveals that prior to the last purchase appellant had reduced the balance in her account to $164. The last purchase, a stereo set, raised the balance due to $678. Significantly, at the time of this and the preceding purchases, appellee was aware of appellant's financial position. The reverse side of the stereo contract listed the name of appellant's social worker and her $218 monthly stipend from the government. Nevertheless, with full knowledge that appellant had to feed, clothe and support both herself and seven children on this amount, appellee sold her a $514 stereo set. We cannot condemn too strongly appellee's conduct. It raises serious questions of sharp practice and irresponsible business dealings.

Weblink

Case brought by Georgetown Law Students. Furniture store closed because it no longer could afford to extend credit to residents. Add-on clause created the necessary collateral to secure the loans Were the residents served well by this decision? Is it ever possible for an add-on clause to be conscionable?
If a Harvard lawyer signed this contract would it still be unconscionable?

Is this unilateral mistake? Does this mean that Williams is exempt from reading the fine print?

Goods depreciate when purchased Down payment can cover the initial depreciation Add-on clause can serve as substitute for down payment An excess in value of reclaimed items over the remaining debt must be returned. Even with an add-on clause the dealer may not claim more than the remaining debt. Cooter suggests that not enforcing an add-on clause hurts poor consumers.

Common law contains weak protections against monopoly Statutes provide protection against price gouging Exceptions

Contracts of adhesion Unconscionability

Monopoly
Price gouging

Contracts of Adhesion

Drawn up by one party and presented to the other on a take it or leave it basis Party presented with the contract has little power Standard form contracts can increase the efficiency of exchange The term contract of adhesion should not be applied to all standard form contracts

A contract or provision which does not fall within the reasonable expectations of the weaker or "adhering" party will not be enforced against him. A contract or provision, even if consistent with the reasonable expectations of the parties, will be denied enforcement if, considered in its context, it is unduly oppressive or "unconscionable."

State legislation no federal prohibition At least 28 states have price gouging laws Usually limited to period of emergency Prices are capped at levels charged in the immediately preceding period

Hourly value in cleanup

Smith
Jones

$10
$75

Real cost of $1 ice Value of with 4Groceries hour wait Buys Ice $50 $41 Doesn't buy $300 $301 ice

Statutory law is a Profound mistake Admiralty and common law may find certain prices unconscionable May not enforce contracts because of threat to withhold performance

Necessity (Post v Jones) Duress (Alaska Packers)

He argues that these cases are different from price gouging Post v Jones
The salvage ships did not create the distress They were not engaging in price rationing The two ships formed a cartel There was no one else competing for the rescue

Alaska Packers
There was no shortage of labor. The workers created the shortage

Windfall profits are unavoidable

Keeping an inventory of items that will be demanded only in emergencies is extremely costly, and may be cost justifiable only if the merchant knows that should there be an emergency the items can be sold at a higher than normal price. This is an objection to a general windfall-profits tax.

Is the controlled price just compensation?

Those without cash (the poor) will suffer Crisis redistribution High price may not stimulate additional supplies in the immediate period Does reputation keep stores from price gouging?

Why dont stores mark up the price of umbrellas when it rains?

Price increase not due to a rise in costs How should cost be measured?

Historical cost Market cost Replacement cost Opportunity cost

Medina traveled from Miami-Dade County to the town of Matthews, North Carolina, where he purchased generators at a Costco store. (Map) Medina offered to consumers the Nikato generators for $600 that he had purchased for $279.99 each, and the Coleman generators for $900 that he had purchased for $529.99 each. Charged with violating Floridas price gouging statute

Illegal contracts
Antitrust laws

Predatory lending Price gouging

Cost of Performance
The cost of doing what was promised

Diminution in Value
The reduction in value accompanying non-performance

Which is the appropriate remedy for a breach? In Peevyhouse the rule was the lesser of the cost of performance or the diminution in market value

Does this lead to efficient breaches?

Objective value
Assumes replacement at market value Perfect substitutes are available

May undercompensate victim


May not perfectly compensate victim when alternatives are not perfect substitutes Not compensated for subjective value

Reimbursement at cost of performance when it is greater than enhanced market value assumes:

Subjective value at least equal to cost of performance Uncertain subjective costs increase the risk of contracting by increasing potential damages

Specific performance
Forces victim to reveal whether subjective value exceeds cost of performance There may be a compromise solution Negotiations may be costly

May impose costs on injurer that exceed harm to victim May lead to inefficient performance Promisee may benefit from potentially inefficient performance

P [the performing party] contracts to construct a monumental fountain in N's [the nonbreaching party] yard for $5000, but abandons the work after the foundation has been laid and $2800 has been paid by N. The contemplated fountain is so ugly that it would decrease the number of possible buyers of the place. The cost of completing the fountain would be $4000. Should N get a judgment for $1800, the cost of completion ($4,000) less the part of price unpaid $2,200 = ($5,000 - $2,800)? What is the main purpose of the contract?

Peevyhouse waived up front payment of $3,000 for use of land Up front royalty payment for coal $2,000

Additional royalties from mining coal


$500 Garlands profits from mining coal $25,000 to $ 34,500

Market value of the undisturbed land


$3,000 Market value of unreclaimed mined land -$0

Cost of reclamation
-$25,000 to $29,000 Market value after restoration $300

The parol evidence rule is a common law rule in contract cases that prevents a party to a written contract from presenting evidence that contradicts or adds to the written terms of the contract that appears to be whole. Is the parol evidence rule efficient?

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