Rocks

CE-301-Lecture 2
Lecturer Abdul Jabbar Semester 2 15 Feb 10 18 Jun 10

Rocks
A rock is any solid mass of mineral or mineral-like matter that occurs naturally as part of our planet. Most rocks occur as solid mixtures of minerals. Some rocks are composed of only one mineral. A characteristic of rock is that each component mineral retains their properties in the mixture e.g. Granite Some rocks are composed of non-mineral matter e.g. Coal (organic material)

The Rock Cycle

It is a relationships among the major rock types.

Fig. 2.9

MAGMA

IGNEOUS

Crystallization

MAGMA

IGNEOUS

Plutonic
Crystallization

MAGMA

Volcanic IGNEOUS

Plutonic
Crystallization

MAGMA

Weathering

Volcanic IGNEOUS

Plutonic
Crystallization

Uplift

MAGMA

Weathering

SEDIMENT

Volcanic IGNEOUS

Plutonic
Crystallization

Uplift

MAGMA

Weathering

SEDIMENT

Erosion
Transport

Volcanic IGNEOUS

Deposition

SEDIMENTARY

Plutonic
Crystallization

Uplift

MAGMA

Weathering

SEDIMENT

Erosion
Transport

Volcanic IGNEOUS

Deposition

SEDIMENTARY

Plutonic
Crystallization

Uplift

MAGMA

Weathering

SEDIMENT

Erosion
Transport

Volcanic IGNEOUS

Deposition

SEDIMENTARY
Increased P&T

Plutonic
Crystallization

METAMORPHIC Burial Uplift MAGMA

Weathering

SEDIMENT

Erosion
Transport

Volcanic IGNEOUS

Can you see any shortcuts?

Deposition

SEDIMENTARY
Increased P&T

Plutonic
Crystallization Melting

METAMORPHIC Burial Uplift MAGMA

Weathering

SEDIMENT

Erosion
Transport

Volcanic IGNEOUS

Deposition

SEDIMENTARY
Increased P&T

Plutonic
Crystallization Melting

METAMORPHIC Burial Uplift MAGMA

In Conclusion

The rock cycle demonstrates the relationships among the three major rock groups It is powered by the interior heat of the Earth As well as earths momentum and The energy from the sun It involves processes on the Earths surface as well as the Earths interior It connects the hydrologic cycle with the tectonic cycle.

Major Rock Groups

Igneous Formed from a melt (molten rock)i.e. Magma or Lava Plutonic (intrusive):slow cooling and crystallization Volcanic (extrusion): quick cooling at the surface Sedimentary Deposition of broken down minerals, rocks, or organic matter that is hardened, cemented or compressed into rock. Formed at the Earths surface Clastic (Mineral Fragments or grains, clays) Chemical (Crystalline chemical/biochemical precipitates)

Metamorphic Changed by pressure, temperature and fluids. rocks that are chemically different from their parent material. Metamorphic Grades, Temp-pressure range

Igneous Rocks
The word igneous comes from the Latin word ignis, which means fire.

Magma Formation
Four major factors that affect the formation of magma are: Temperature-different types of rocks melt at different temperatures (increases with depth) Pressure-the greater the pressure, the higher the melting point (increases with depth) Water Content-the addition of water tends to lower the melting point of most rocks Mineral Content-different minerals melt at different temperatures Silica content affects melting temperature and also impacts how quickly magma flows.

Geothermal Gradient
Major processes contributing heat heat from when the planet formed and accreted, which has not yet been lost frictional heating, caused by denser core material sinking to the center of the planet; and heat from the decay of radioactive elements; uranium (U), thorium (Th), and potassium (K)
Partial melting is the process whereby some minerals melt at low temperatures while other minerals remain solid.

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For rocks to melt, the right combination of temperature, pressure, and composition must be present.

In general, oceanic crust is rich in iron and magnesium and therefore melts at higher temperatures than continental crust, which contains higher levels of silicon and aluminum.

Types of Igneous Structures

Intrusive Structures Extrusive Structures

Igneous Rock
Extrusive Igneous Rocks forms on the surface of the earth:
Volcanic Neck; Lava Plateau/field; Bombs; Ash

Intrusive Igneous Rocks forms beneath the earths surface/ underground:

Batholiths; Stock; Laccoliths; Sills and Dikes

Fig. 6.02
W. W. Norton

Intrusive Granite
(large crystals)

Extrusive Basalt
(small crystals + glass)

Igneous Rock Samples

Extrusive Lava Flow-McGraw Hill Pub.

Intrusive Granite
www.windows.ucar.edu

Igneous rocks
Intrusive or extrusive ???

Intrusive or extrusive?

Slow or fast cooling?

Intrusive Structure
Most magma is emplaced at depth in the Earth
Once cooled and solidified, is called a pluton

Nature of plutons
Shape - tabular (sheetlike) vs. massive Orientation with respect to the host (surrounding) rock
Concordant vs. discordant

Intrusive Structure
Other LARGE INRTUSIONS Pluton- moderately large, intruded one time

Stock- major intrusion, vertical or near vertical cylindrical body

Sheets- Much thicker than sills, hundreds of sqm Stopping- Magma stopping in country rocks

Intrusive Rocks features

Types of intrusive igneous features Sill a tabular(into the bedding planes), concordant pluton, intruded under flat cover against vertical pressure
Multiple sill, composite sill

Phacolith-small intrusion curved roof and floor type in folded rocks (into crest and troughs of a fold) Laccolith Similar to a sill Lens or mushroom-shaped mass Arches overlying strata upward Small intrusion with flat floor and doomed roof

A sill in the Salt River Canyon, Arizona

Sill
Sill- intruded under flat cover against vertical pressure

Intrusive Rocks features

Intrusive igneous features continued Dike a tabular, discordant (push, drag or cut) pluton, wall like sturcture. (simple, multiple,
composite)

Ring dykes- filling curved fractures Batholith Largest intrusive body (sometimes consist of numbers of
plutons)

Surface exposure > 100+ km2 (smaller bodies are termed stocks) Frequently form the cores of mountains Large bottomless rising irregular projection in sedimentary rock

Dyke

Dyke (Grand Tetons, Wyoming)

 When batholiths are uplifted and exposed, they are usually resistant strata that form the roots of mountain ranges or eroded highlands.

Extrusive Structure
Volcanic Neck; Lava; Ash:

Magma is seen to be solidified as a more or less pipe in the vents of inactive volcanoes

Volcanic Necks

A bit more for

Types of Igneous Structures

Pyroclasts, Tephra, And Tuffs

A fragment of rock ejected during a volcanic eruption is called a pyroclast.
Rocks formed from pyroclasts are pyroclastic rocks.

Geologists commonly refer to a deposit of pyroclasts as tephra, a Greek name for ash.
Tephra is a collective term for all airborne pyroclasts.

Pyroclasts, Tephra, And Tuffs

Tephra particles are categorized by size:
Bombs: greater than 64 mm in diameter Lapilli: between 2 and 64 mm Ash: smaller than 2 mm.

Tephra is igneous when it goes up but sedimentary when it comes down.

Pyroclasts, Tephra, And Tuffs

Pyroclastic rocks are transitional between igneous and sedimentary rocks. When bomb-sized tephra are transformed into a rock they are called agglomerates. They are called tuffs when particles are either lapilli or ash.

Pyroclasts, Tephra, And Tuffs

Tephra can be converted into pyroclastic rock in two ways:
Through the addition of a cementing agent, such as quartz or calcite, introduced by groundwater.

Through the welding of hot, glassy, ash particles.

Welded tuff.

Field Identification / Classification of Igneous Rocks

how visible the crystals/minerals in a rock are large crystal, small crystal, coarse, fine, dark color, light color etc

Texture Appearance of an igneous rock based rate of cooling, magma composition and gas contents of magma.
Composition Based on the proportions of light and dark minerals in the rock. Structure Based on the appearance which is well defined in rock different textures/compositions/structure of igneous rocks

Examples of Igneous Rx
Two Varieties of Granite

Fine Grain Basalt

Granite Porphory

Textural Classification
Coarse-Grained Texture: Caused by slow cooling, resulting in the formation of large crystals.
Example: Granite

Fine-Grained Texture: Caused by the rapid cooling of magma or lava, resulting in rocks with small, interconnected mineral grains.
Example: Rhyolite

Textural Classification
Glassy Texture: Caused when lava spews into Earths surface and the ions do not have enough time to arrange themselves in crystals.
Example: Obsidian

Porphyritic Texture: Caused when minerals crystallize at different rates, resulting in some crystals that are large, surrounded by fine-grained minerals.
Example: Andesite

Composition and Origin of Magma

Magma is a mix if molten rocks, dissolved gases, and minerals.
Classified based on the amount of Silicates Rhyolitic- 70% SiO2 (usually light in color) Andesitic- 60% SiO2 (intermediate in color) Basaltic- 50% SiO2 (dark in color)
Si,O,Al,Na,K,Ca,Fe,Mg & Gases: CO2,SO2, H2O

either acidic(>75%) or basic(<50%)

Partial melting
fractional crystallization

Compositional Classification
Granitic Composition: Most contain 10% dark silicate minerals Contain about 70% silica.
Examples: Granite and Rhyolite

Granite

Rhyolite

Compositional Classification
Andesitic Composition: Rocks with composition between granitic and basaltic. Named after the common volcanic rock andesite. Contain at least 25% dark silicate minerals (amphibole, pyroxene, and biotite mica). The other dominant mineral is plagioclase feldspar.
Examples: Diorite and Andesite

Diorite

Andesite

Compositional Classification
Basaltic Composition: Rich in the elements magnesium and iron. Contain many dark silicate minerals and plagioclase fledspar. Typically darker and denser than granitic rocks.
Examples: Basalt and Gabbro

Ultrabasic Composition: Rocks that contain the minerals olivine and pyroxene. Composed almost entirely of dark basic minerals. Rare at the Earths surface.
Examples: Peridotite

Families of Igneous Rx
Felsic- rx that are silica rich, are light in color (mainly quartz and orthoclase feldspar) can be coarse or fine grained, composed of quartz and potassium feldspar. Granite and obsidian (volcanic glass) Intermediate- rx that range in color from dark to light; contain both felsic and mafic forming minerals (a mix of these types of rx); composed of amphibole and feldspar contain, less quartz than felsic rx Diorites and Andesites are common forms Mafic- iron and magnesium rich rx that are low in silica; tend to be dark in color and are mainly composed of feldspars and pyroxene minerals and lack quartz; can be ferromagnetic Coarse and fine grain basalts are common forms

Various forms of eruptions

Fissure Eruptions, Central Eruption, etc

Tectonic Settings of Igneous Activity

Volcanic Island Arc, Indonesia

Oceanic Hot Spot

Hawaii

Continental Volcanic Arc N. Cascades

GRANITE

RHYOLITE

GABBRO

BASALT

PEGMATITE

PERIDOTITE

OBSIDIAN

SCORIA

PUMICE

THANKS

IN PAKISTAN (Famous Igneous Rocks)

Mansehra Granite Lahore Granite Nagarparker Granite Hackley Granite