Chapter I WHY PURIFY

Water

used as a makeup source for steam generators (boilers) must be highly purified. This protects the steam generator, piping and equipment, such as turbines, from scaling and corrosion caused by impurities.

 The

use of improperly purified makeup water causes potentially costly and hazardous damage to steam generator piping and equipment. Impurities in the makeup water of a steam generator can cause damage through many mechanisms, including deposits, corrosion cells, and stress corrosion cracking (SCC).

 Suspended

and dissolved contaminants in makeup water can form deposits if permitted to enter a steam generator. Once formed, these deposits affect the heat transfer capability of the boiler tube metal, which can cause rapid degradation and failure of the boiler tube walls. Figure 1.1-3 below shows a boiler tube that has suffered from overheating caused by accumulated deposits that insulated the tube.

EFFECT OF IMPURITY OF WATER

A. Deposition and Scaling
Intrinsic in the design of boilers is the need for steam/water separation to enhance steam quality. As a result of this separation, most impurities present in the feedwater remain in the boiler. As the system continues to cycle, these impurities continue to concentrate due to additional contaminants that enter the boiler to make up for steam and water losses. When the concentrations of the contaminants exceed their solubilities, the contaminants precipitate out of the feedwater. This can occur throughout the boiler system and tubes.

1. Scale
When these impurities come out of solution, they are usually in the form of salts that have low solubility even at high temperatures. Some common forms of boiler scale include: Calcium Carbonate Magnesium Hydroxide Calcium Sulfate Magnesium Silicate Calcium Phosphate Iron Oxide Since these salts are crystalline in nature, the scale can bind tightly with surfaces, particularly at surface imperfections. Once scale forms, it seeds the precipitation of other scalants.

Effects of Scale Once scale begins to form on tube surfaces, it creates another layer of material through which heat must pass to get to the water. Two main problems occur due to the insulative effect of the scale material: under deposit corrosion and overheating of the boiler tube metal.

a. Under deposit corrosion

Under deposit corrosion occurs due to the increased temperature difference that exists between the waterside tube metal and the newly formed deposit layer. Heat transfer occurs less efficiently through the deposit layer, because the metal surface below the deposit is not adequately cooled by boiler water.

Because of this, the surface of the tube under the deposit reaches a higher temperature than the surrounding tube surfaces. The water between the tube metal and the deposit boils off or evaporates, leaving behind any trace dissolved solids that were present in the water. These trace dissolved solids, such as chloride or sodium ions, that remain below the deposit can concentrate to form corrosive substances such as hydrochloric acid or sodium hydroxide. In time these corrosive solutions form pits where harmful deposits can occur in the future.

b. Overheating of boiler tube metal

The boiler tube metal overheats due to the same insulative properties of deposit and scale that cause under deposit corrosion and the resultant tube failures described above. Because heat does not pass through the deposit material as effectively as it passes through the metal, an increase in metal temperature on both sides of the boiler tube occurs. Consequently, the surface temperature on the fireside of the tube can become so high that the actual properties of the carbon steel are altered as its granular structure changes.

2. Hideout
Another form of deposition is hideout, a temporary or permanent disappearance of chemicals within the boiler system. It can occur in any system component and is caused by a variety of phenomena. Calcium and magnesium exhibit retrograde solubility in the presence of anions such as bicarbonate, carbonate or hydroxide ions. This means that their solubilities decrease with increasing temperature and pressure. Because of this retrograde solubility, calcium and magnesium form scale in the hottest locations within the boiler first.

Control Methods
Elevated concentrations of impurities in the boiler can be avoided through adequate purification of makeup water and boiler blowdown. Blowdown headers are designed to preferentially take water at locations where impurities can concentrate, either at the surface of steam/water separation in the drum, or at some other location depending on the contaminant. Chemical treatments are also available to help limit deposition. Phosphate is one example of a treatment chemical. It serves other purposes, such as pH control and surface passivation, and it is very good at converting salts and suspended solids to forms that are easily controlled through blowdown. The most effective way to prevent scaling, corrosion and related problems caused by impurities is to prevent impurities from entering the steam generator.

B. Corrosion
A certain percentage of water molecules dissociate into H+ and OH- ions. These ions become a contributing factor to corrosion. This tendency to dissociate, combined with the high pressures and temperatures found in boiler systems, make water an aggressive fluid in the steam cycle. As a result, many alloys corrode in this environment.

Effects of corrosion
Corrosion cannot be completely eliminated. However, it is possible to minimize its effects and control the type of corrosion present in the system. Generalized surface corrosion is preferable to other types, like pitting corrosion. A boiler can outlast the economic life of the plant if water chemistry and passivation are controlled to limit the type of corrosion to general surface corrosion. Accelerated pitting, on the other hand, can lead to catastrophic tube failures in a very short period of time, sometimes in a matter of hours.

Control Methods
As with deposit control, proper feedwater quality and chemical treatments are instrumental in preventing boiler corrosion. It is necessary to define the type of corrosion to which a system is most susceptible in order to develop the appropriate corrosion control scheme. Limiting contamination from feedwater or other component contributors is extremely important. Corrosion is best avoided by maintaining system purity, rather than through chemical control alone.

C. Vaporous Carryover
Carryover and entrapment of water and impurities with the steam causes damage and corrosion in steam piping, control valves, and turbines. Steam purity is essential for maintaining these components, as minute concentrations of impurities can cause severe and costly damage.

1. Mechanical Carryover
Mechanical carryover can occur due to several mechanisms: poor boiler design, poor maintenance, high drum level, load surges, uneven firing, operating beyond capacity and improper water composition. Only water composition can be controlled chemically.

Mechanical carryover can also occur due to foaming and priming. Foaming occurs when the water contains large amounts of solids and organic material. Priming is the spouting and surging of water into the steam header due to improper boiler operation or design. Both foaming and priming can cause impurities to be entrained in the steam.

2. Chemical Carryover
Certain elements and compounds that are normally solids have vaporous tendencies in boiler environments. These chemicals carry over as vapor with the steam into post boiler components where they re-solidify. For instance, silica has the ability to volatilize along with the steam at certain concentrations and at certain pressures and temperatures. When it is no longer soluble in steam, the silica forms deposits. This occurs selectively on turbine blades, where the deposits cause vibrations. Silica is particularly hard to remove once deposited, requiring a hydrofluoric acid wash or grit blasting.

Results / Effect of Carryover

Solids carried over with steam can have a significant negative impact on post-boiler components. Deposits can form on steam tube surfaces, valves, and turbines. Damage caused by upstream deposits can also cause subsequent damage downstream. For instance, deposit-caused corrosion products from the superheaters can end up in turbine components with disastrous results. Turbines are very sensitive to carryover products. Figure 1.6-2 on the right shows a closeup of turbine blades. If the blades become corroded, the turbine can become unbalanced and suffer reduced efficiency.

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