IP Networks

IP NETWORKS
Section 1 TCP/IP Architecture and Implementati
Section 2 Link Layer Protocols

Section 3 Network Layer Protocols Section 4 Transport layer protocols Section 5 IP Routing
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OSI Reference Model

Application
Representation
Application programs
Data format and representation
Session
Transport Network Data link Physical
Interhost communication
End-to-End connections
Addresses and best path

Access to media
Binary transmission
OSI Layer Interaction
The Physical Layer (Layer 1) ensures bit synchronization and places the received binary pattern into a buffer. It notifies the Data Link Layer (Layer 2) that a frame has been received after decoding the incoming signal into a bit stream. Thus, Layer 1 provides delivery of a stream of bits across the medium.
The Data Link Layer (Layer 2) examines the frame check sequence (FCS) in the trailer to determine whether errors occurred in transmission, providing error detection. If an error has occurred, the frame is discarded. The current host examines the data link address to determine if the data is addressed to it or whether to process the data further. If the data is addressed to the host, the data between the Layer 2 header and trailer is handed over to the Network Layer (Layer 3) software. Thus, the data link layer delivers data across the link.
The Network Layer (Layer 3) examines the destination address. If the address is the current host's address, processing continues and the data after the Layer 3 header is handed over to the Transport Layer
(Layer 4) software. Thus, Layer 3 provides end-to-end delivery.

Layer 4 Transport Layer provides error recovery. After error recovery and reordering of the incoming data, the data is given to the Session Layer (Layer 5). The Session Layer (Layer 5) ensures that a series of messages is completed.. After the session layer ensures that all flows are completed, it passes the data
after the Layer 5 header to the Presentation Layer (Layer 6) software.
The Presentation Layer (Layer 6) defines and manipulates the data format of the data transmission. It converts the data to the proper format specified in the Layer 6 header. After the data formats have
been converted, the data after the Layer 6 header is passed to the Application Layer (Layer 7) software. The Application Layer (Layer 7) processes the final header and examines and delivers the end-user data..
TCP/IP Transmission Mode
Application Layer
Application Layer
Transport layer
Transport layer
Network
layer Link layer Physical layer Terminal system
Network
layer Link layer Physical layer Router
Network
layer Link layer Physical layer Router
Network layer Link layer Physical layer Bridge Link layer Physical layer Terminal system
TCP Source Ports

Port Protocol UDP port 15 NETSTAT TCP port 21 FTP TCP port 23 Telnet TCP port 25 SMTP UDP port 53 DNS UDP port 69 TFTP TCP port 70 Gopher TCP port 79 Finger TCP/UDP port 80 HTTP TCP port 110 POP3 UDP port 111 RPC TCP port 119 NNTP (Network News Transfer Protocol) TCP port 123 NTP UDP port 137 NetBIOS name service UDP port 161 SNMP network monitor UDP port 2049 NFS
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About this Session

Link Layer Protocols

PPP
LAN and WAN
LAN and WAN

Different coverage ranges

LAN: Applicable to limited geographical areas

WAN: Applicable to remote connection
Different rates

LAN: 10Mbps, 100Mbps and 1000Mbps WAN: 64Kbps, 128Kbps, 384Kbps and 2Mbps
Different technologies are used
LAN Types
Ethernet
Switching Ethernet (mainstream of LAN currently)

Token ring network FDDI (Fiber distributed digital interface)
What is Ethernet?
Ethernet is a LAN implementation technology defined by IEEE Std 802.3 as part of the LAN/MAN standards
802.X protocol suite specifies the access mode of network, and the technologies of the switching Ethernet and fast Ethernet are all named 802.X protocol
Ethernet Standard
802.1 802.2

LAN/MAN Management (and MAC Control Bridges) Logical Link Control CSMA/CD
802.3
802.4
802.5 802.6
Token Bus
Token Ring Distributed Queue Dual Bus (DQDB)
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
802.7
802.8 802.9
Broadband Local Area Networks

Fiber-Optic LANs and MANs Integrated Services (IS) LAN Interface
802.10 LAN/MAN Security 802.11b Wireless LAN
802.12 Demand Priority Access Method

Ethernet Physical Structure Bus type (10BASE2 and 10BASE5 at early stage)
A B C
Relay
Star type (other Ethernet types after 10BASE-T)

Hub/ Bridge
Hub/ Bridge
Ethernet Work Principle CSMA/CD
CSMA/CD: Carrier Sense Multi Access with Collision Detection
Carrier sense: Detection before transmission Collision detection: Detection during transmission Backoff: Handling after a collision is detected
Commonly Used Devices in LAN

HUB LAN SWITCH ROUTER Twisted pair Optical fiber Network card
HUB
It works in the physical layer and copies binary bits one by one among cables
It is a kind of shared network device connecting together network cables that are connected to different computers. and the
communication can be connected only between two ports at a certain

time
Gradually washed out in network applications
LAN SWITCH
It works in the link layer and stores and forwards frames between LANs
It connects many hubs through network cables to constitute a

larger network It connects computer terminals to constitute a LAN
Twisted Pair
10BASE-T
10:the transmission rate is 10Mbps; BASE: using base band signal; T: twisted pair; Transmission distance: a maximum of 100m for Category 3/4/5 unshielded twisted pair cable and Category 5 shielded twisted pair cable
100BASE-TX
100:the transmission rate is 100Mbps; Transmission distance: a maximum of 100m for Category 5 unshielded twisted pair cable and Category 5 shielded
twisted pair cable
10BASE2
2: thin coaxial cable. The maximum transmission distance is 185m
10BASE5
5: thick coaxial cable. The maximum transmission distance is 500m

Optical fiber
100BASE-FX
The maximum transmission distance of the single-mode optical fiber is
15km and the maximum transmission distance of the multi-mode optical

fiber is 2km for the 100Mbps Ethernet
1000BASE-SX
Short wavelength optical fiber, 1000Mbps Ethernet, the maximum transmission distance of the multi-mode optical fiber is 220m
1000BASE-LX
Long wavelength optical fiber, 1000Mbps Ethernet, the maximum

transmission distance of a multi-mode optical fiber is 550m, the maximum transmission distance of a single-mode optical fiber is 10km
Shared Ethernet
HUB
When any port receives a packet, this packet will be broadcast to all
the
ports
directly,
logically
constituting a shared medium
If two or more ports receive
Collision Collision Collision Collision
packets simultaneously, collision

will occur, and DTE will implement the CSMA/CD algorithm
Only one DTE can implement valid transmission at a certain moment
Switched Ethernet
Bridge (LAN SWITCH)
It
implements
address
learning
according to SA (Source Address) of

the received packet to establish the corresponding address and port
relation
between
After receiving a packet, it checks the

table according to DA (Destination Address) of the packet and forwards the packet to the specific port
Multiple DTEs can implement valid transmission at a certain moment, and no mutual interference will occur
Ethernet Cables
There are 3 main types of Ethernet Cables used for different purposes, namely
Straight through- Cable : A straight-through cable is used to connect Host (PC) Switch or Hub Router ---> Switch or Hub
Crossover Cable: A crossover cable an be used to connect Switch --> Switch Hub Hub
Host Host Hub Switch
Router Host
Rolled or Rolled-Over Cable: Used to connect a host to a
router console serial communication (com) port. This cable is

usually used when configuring one of these devices for the first time. A rolled cable connects the PCs serial port (using a DB9 to RJ45 adaptor) to the router or switchs console port. A rolled Cable pin out is giving below
Shared Ethernet vs. Switched Ethernet Shared Ethernet Vs Switched Ethernet

Topology Structure Work mode Bandwidth Equipment Equipment processing layer Bus or star Half Duplex shared medium Star Full Duplex exclusive medium
Hub, relay
Physical layer CSMA/CD
Bridge, Switch
MAC layer Address learning
Technology
and switching
WAN Types
Packet-switched network X25 : X.25 protocol is the interface procedure between DTE and DCE Frame Relay: FR is the second layer network, and it is the simplified X.25 .FR can be used at the Gb interface
Lines are not exclusively occupied, thus, the utilization rate is high
About this Session

Network Protocols
IP
ARP
RARP ICMP
Protocol application
IP
IPInternet Protocol.
As a network layer protocol of the TCP/IP protocol suite, IP is

used to transmit datagrams of the transport layer and the application layer. IP identifies the source and destination through IP address.
IP Address
An IP address is a unique 32-bit address assigned to each host connected to Internet.
01234 Class A Class B 0 10 net-id net-id 8 16 host-id host-id 24 31
Class C
110
net-id
host-id
Class D
1110
Multicast address
Class E
11110
Reserved for future use

Network Address Range: Class A The designers of the IP address scheme decided the first bit of the first byte in a Class A network address must always be off, or 0. This means a Class A address must be between 0 and 127, inclusive. Consider the following network address: 0xxxxxxx
If we turn the other 7 bits all off and then turn them all on, well find the Class A range of network addresses:
00000000 = 0 01111111 = 127 So, a Class A network is defined in the first octet between 0 and 127, and it cant be less or more. (yes, I know 0 and 127 are not valid in a class A networkIll talk about illegal addresses in a minute.)
Class A Addresses
1st byte used for Network Address, remaining 3 are used for Host Class A address format is network.node.node.node For example, in the IP address 49.22.102.70, the 49 is the network address, and 22.102.70 is the node address..
Class A network addresses are one byte long, with the first bit of that byte reserved and the 7 remaining bits available for manipulation (addressing). Thus class A can have maximum of 2^7 Networks= 128 The network address of all 0s (0000 0000) is reserved to designate the default route and 127 ,reserved for loopback cant be used. Thus only 1 to 126 can be used to designate class A network address.
Each Class A address has three bytes (24-bit positions) for the node address of a machine. This means there are 2^24or 16,777,216 .As above addresses of all 0s and all 1s are reserved. So a whooping 2^24-2 usable host addresses on a network segment
Class B Address
network.network.node.node
For example, in the IP address 172.16.30.56, the network address is 172.16, and the node address is 30.56 2^16 unique combinations. Class B network addresses should start with the binary digit 1, then 0. This leaves 14 bit positions to manipulate, therefore 16,384 (that is, 2^14) unique Class B network addresses
We have 2^16 minus the two reserved patterns (all 0s and all 1s), for a total of 65,534 possible node addresses for each Class B network.
Class B Valid Host IDs Heres an example of how to find the valid hosts in a Class B network: All host bits turned off is the network address: 172.16.0.0. All host bits turned on is the broadcast address: 172.16.255.255. The valid hosts would be the numbers in between the network address and the broadcast address: 172.16.0.1 through 172.16.255.254.
Network Address Range: Class B

In a Class B network, the RFCs state that the first bit of the first byte must always be turned on, but the second bit must always be turned off. If you turn the other 6 bits all off and then all on, you will find the range for a Class B network: 10000000 = 128 10111111 = 191 As you can see, a Class B network is defined when the first byte is configured from 128 to 191. Network Address Range: Class C
For Class C networks, the RFCs define the first 2 bits of the first octet as always turned on, but
the third bit can never be on. Following the same process as the previous classes, convert from binary to decimal to find the range. Heres the range for a Class C network: 11000000 = 192 11011111 = 223
So, if you see an IP address that starts at 192 and goes to 223, youll know it is a Class C
IP address. Network Address Ranges: Classes D and E The addresses between 224 and 255 are reserved for Class D and E networks. Class D (224239) is used for multicast addresses and Class E (240255) for scientific purposes,
Class C Addresses
network.network.network.node
Using the example IP address 192.168.100.102, the network address is 192.168.100, and the node address is 102.
In a Class C network address, the first three bit positions are always the binary 110. The calculation is: 3 bytes, or 24 bits, minus 3 reserved positions, leaves 21 positions. Hence, there are 2^21, or 2,097,152, possible Class C networks.
Each unique Class C network has one byte to use for node addresses. This leads to 2^8 or 256, minus the two reserved patterns of all 0s and all 1s, for a total of 254 node addresses for each Class C network.
Some IP addresses are reserved for special purposes, so network administrators cant ever assign these addresses to nodes. The table below lists the members of this exclusive little club and the reasons why they re included in it.
Private IP Addresses
Private IP Addresses
These can be used on a private network, but theyre not routable through the Internet also for the purpose of creating a measure of well-needed security and conveniently saves valuable IP address space.
A small no of routable IP addresses is used by a corporate organization and with the use of NAT many host can use the address(es) to reach the internet
Subnet and Mask
The introduction of subnet increases the number of networks, which is realized by reducing the number of hosts. A mask is a 32-bit numeral consisting of consecutive 1s and consecutive 0s. It implements bit by bit and operation with the IP address, acting as a screen. Bits of 1 in the mask will not be screened off and will remain unchanged; For bits of 0,
the difference of the host address will be screened off, thus the same
network address will be obtained in a network.
For example, a class A address can be changed to a class C address by the following means. Such class C addresses constitute a subnet:: IP address: 120. 118. 100. 86 Subnet mask: 255. 255. 255. 0
Subnet and Mask
As described above, we can conclude that there the number

of the host addresses that can be distributed in a network is more than 16,000,000 for class A addresses. While in the actual networks, this mode is not reasonable as no network is so big to hold so many hosts. This case also exists in class B addresses and class C addresses. A network, therefore, must be fractionalized to improve effectiveness of IP addresses and ease the management of them. Subnets are the actual embodiment of this idea. They are the small networks in a big network. The concepts of Subnet and Subnet Mask can help us plan IP addresses of a network.
Troubleshooting Address
IP
Troubleshooting IP addressing is obviously important as trouble occurs in IP Networks and you must be able to determine and fix a problem on an IP network whether youre at work or at home.. Assume one of the network nodes cannot communicate with say Network Management server or another nodes which just happens to be on a remote network or perhaps your Laptop could not connect to the internet. Here are 4 steps you should employ
1. Open a DOS window and ping 127.0.0.1. This is the diagnostic or loopback address, and if you get a successful ping, your IP stack is then considered to be initialized. If it fails, then you have an IP stack failure and need to reinstall TCP/IP on Confidential the Information host. of Huawei. Security Level: Internal
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2. From the DOS window, ping the IP address of the local host. If thats successful, then your Network Interface Card (NIC) card is functioning. If it fails, then there is a problem with the NIC card. This doesnt mean that a cable is plugged into the NIC, only that the IP protocol stack on the host can communicate to the NIC. 3. From the DOS window, ping the default gateway (router). If the ping works, it means that the NIC is plugged into the network and can communicate on the local network. If it fails, then you have a local physical network problem that could be happening anywhere from the NIC to the router. 4. If steps 1 through 3 were successful, try to ping the remote server. If that works, then you know that you have IP communication between the local host and the remote server. You also know that the remote physical network is working.
Network Protocols
IP
ARP
RARP ICMP
ARP Protocol
ARPAddress Resolution Protocol, ARP implements the
conversion from IP addresses to MAC addresses (Medium

Access Control).
MAC address A 48-bit binary address, usually appears as a 12-digit hexadecimal number, like 00e0fc012345. Each network device has a globally unique MAC address. Applicable to LANs. The communications among hosts within a LAN must be implemented through the MAC address.
ARP Protocol
The process for the host 189.110.67.56 to search the host 189.110.58.69 to obtain the MAC address is as follows:
MAC header FF. FF .FF. FF. FF. FF 08. 02. 80. 65. 63. 09 IP header 189.110.58.69 189.110. 67. 56
ARP request message: What is your MAC address?
The host 189.110.67.56 sends a broadcast message MAC header 08. 02. 80. 65. 63. 09 05 23. 88. 57. 03. 44 IP header 189.110. 67. 56 1891105869
ARP reply message: This is my MAC address
The host 189.110.58.69 responses to the message

Network Protocols
IP
ARP
RARP ICMP
RARP
RARP - Reverse Address Resolution Protocol
Compared with ARP, RARP works just in the opposite way:

RARP obtains an IP address through the MAC address. In communications, many hosts do not have an IP address during initialization, and, in this case, the RARP protocol must be used to obtain the IP address. For example: No-disk workstation; when the computer is configured to obtain IP address automatically.
Network Protocols
IP
ARP
RARP ICMP
ICMP
ICPM - Internet Control Message Protocol
It allows hosts or routers to report errors and exceptions.
ICMP Protocol
Relation between ICMP message and IP packet
ICMP message
IP packet header
IP packet data
IP packet
ICMP
ICMP application:
Error messages--messages mainly used to carry changed

routes information Inquiry messages :

ICMP Echo request message ICMP Echo reply message
Network Protocols
IP
ARP
RARP ICMP
Network Layer Protocol Application

The PING command uses ICMP to know whether the
communication with the peer host is normal.
Under DOS mode, ARP A is used to obtain the corresponding relation between an IP address and a MAC address.
TCP / IP Utilities
Ping: Ping gives echo response which could be successful, unreachable..
Traceroute: Shows the path to a target network displaying the hops. Ping can reveal there is a network problem but cant help to resolve it,traceroute can be used to identify where the problem is Ipconfig: used to assign TCP/IP configuration parameters to certain network interfaces. Address Resolution Protocol (ARP):ARP allows a TCP/IP system to change IP addresses to the MAC addresses, which the data-link protocol uses. Netstat: Shows the info about a TCP/IP system's network connection
TCP/IP Utilities
Nbtstat : Shows the information about the NetBIOS over
the TCP/IP connections the Windows use to communicate

over the LAN.
For the above Utilities, they all have associated options like ping {ip address t }. Find out on the dos prompt how to see their associated list of options
TELECOMMUNICATIONS NETWORK PROTOCOL (TELNET)
Telnet command line gives control capabilities for systems on a network. A user that is running a Telnet client program is able to connect to another Telnet system. Telnet was actually programmed for a UNIX system. You will only get a Telnet server on a Windows 2000 system. Telnet is used to remotely log on to a server say for configuration or troubleshooting purposes. Telnet operates on TCP port 23. Telnet connection is not secured. Thus Secure shell (ssh) was developed. Putty is a typical ssh client.
About this Session

Transport Layer Protocols

Functions of transport layer protocols:
The link layer is responsible for encapsulation and transmission

of data, and the network layer implements IP packet routing, etc. However, for data communications mainly based on computers, some problems, like flow control and reliability, must be solved before the communications can be realized. These functions are implemented in the transport layer.

TCP
UDP
TCP
TCPTransfer Control Protocol.
TCP has the following three functions:

Flow control: It implements flow control via slide window; Reliability: It realizes reliability through sequence number and acknowledgement mechanism; It indicates the upper layer application by port number so as to hand the data to the corresponding application program to process.
TCP
Source/Destination port numbers :
Port numbers are used to identify upper layer protocols. Different applications have different port numbers, so that the request and received data can be processed by corresponding applications. Port numbers are divided into source port number and destination port number, which are not necessarily the same in communications. By means of combining port numbers with IP addresses, different
applications at different places can be uniquely identified within the

whole network; in a host, it is determined through the port numbers of TCP (or UDP) to which application program a message should be submitted.
TCP
TCP and UDP port numbers are divided into the following three
classes:
The port numbers with the values smaller than 255 are used for common applications, for example, FTP, Telnet, SMTP and HTTP use ports 21, 23, 25 and 80 respectively. 255~1023 are allocated to companies. 1024 and its larger values are not defined yet.

TCP
UDP
UDP
UDPUser Datagram Protocol .
UDP does not require data buffering during transmission and

does not involve connection management. Under the UDP mode, Valid arrival of messages can be ensured by timeout retry mechanism of application program.
UDP Protocol
Bit 0 15 31
Source port number UDP Message length
Destination port number

Checksum
Data of variable lengths
UDP
Comparison between TCP and UDP:

TCP is a connection-oriented reliable transport protocol

UDP is connectionless unreliable transport protocol TCP is complicated while UDP is simple
UDP is applicable to the communication transmission with

high real-time requirement (for example, voice communication), while the real-time feature of TCP is not as good as that of UDP due to large overhead
Application of TCP and UDP

TCP and UDP are designed for application programs of
different characteristics. Among common programs, SMTP,

FTP and Telnet adopt TCP, while DNS, SNMP and multicast adopt UDP.
About this Session

IP routing
The important role of the network layer is searching path, that is, forwarding a data packet to the destination host according to the destination IP address
The equipment to implement this is a router
? Which channel?
Characteristics and Roles of a Router

A router must meet the following requirements:
It must have two or more network layer interfaces, used for

connection of different networks; The protocol must be realized to the network layer.
A router has the following two function:

Generating routing tables Forwarding data packets to other networks
Examples of Router Connection

Interface address 61.1.1.1 Interface address 129.6.0.1
Subnet 61.1.1.1/8
Router A
Subnet 129.6.0.0/16
Router B
Subnet 202.6.6.0/24
Interface address 129.6.69.107
Interface address 202.6.6.1
Routing Table in Router A

Destination network address 202.6.6.0 129.6.0.0 61.0.0.0 Destination network mask 255.255.255.0 Egress interface 129.6.69.107
Next Hop 129.6.0.1
255.255.0.0 129.6.69.107 129.6.69.107 255.0.0.0 61.1.1.1 61.1.1.1
Routing Table in Router B

Destination network address Destination network mask
Next Hop
Egress interface
202.6.6.0
129.6.0.0 61.0.0.0
255.255.255.0
255.255.0.0 255.0.0.0
202.6. 6.1
129.6. 0.1 129. 6. 69.1 07
202.6. 6.1
129.6. 0.1 129. 6. 0.1
Generating Modes of Routing Tables
Supporting static routing
The routing information is inputted by operation personnel entry

by entry
Dynamic routing

Routing table items are generated by routing protocols The common routing protocols include OSPF protocol and Routing Information Protocol (RIP).
Working Flow of a Router

Route selection protocol conversion
Router
Router
IP
Protocol decapsulation
IP
PPP
Protocol encapsulation
ETH
PPP
ETH
Ethernet Serial interface interface
Serial Ethernet interface interface
LAN1
Sending
WAN
Transmission
LAN2
Receiving
Summary
Corresponding to the standard 7-layer model of OSI, the TCP/IP suite includes four layers: Link layer, network layer, transport layer and application layer.
The role of the link layer is to ensure reliable and correct

transmission of message information. The network layer and the transport layer are the key points of
this lesson. The classification method of IP addresses and the

segmentation method of subnets, the roles of TCP and UDP and the application method of ports must be mastered.
A router is used to determine the path for packet transmission. Routing protocols are complicated, and trainees are just required to understand their functions.
Router Configuration Practice with reference to Cisco Router
will be done using an Open source Cisco Router Emulating

Software Dynamips/Dynagen

IP Networks

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IP NETWORKS

Section 1 TCP/IP Architecture and Implementati

Section 2 Link Layer Protocols

Confidential Information of Huawei. No Spreading without Permission.

Security Level: Internal

OSI Reference Model

Addresses and best path

OSI Layer Interaction

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Security Level: Internal

(Layer 4) software. Thus, Layer 3 provides end-to-end delivery.

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Security Level: Internal

after the Layer 5 header to the Presentation Layer (Layer 6) software.

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TCP/IP Transmission Mode

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TCP Source Ports

About this Session

Section 1 TCP/IP Architecture and Implementati

Section 2 Link Layer Protocols

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Security Level: Internal

Link Layer Protocols

LAN and WAN

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LAN and WAN

LAN: Applicable to limited geographical areas

Different technologies are used

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Switching Ethernet (mainstream of LAN currently)

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Security Level: Internal

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Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Broadband Local Area Networks

802.10 LAN/MAN Security 802.11b Wireless LAN

802.12 Demand Priority Access Method

Star type (other Ethernet types after 10BASE-T)

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Ethernet Work Principle CSMA/CD

CSMA/CD: Carrier Sense Multi Access with Collision Detection

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Commonly Used Devices in LAN

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communication can be connected only between two ports at a certain

Gradually washed out in network applications

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It connects many hubs through network cables to constitute a

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Security Level: Internal

twisted pair cable

2: thin coaxial cable. The maximum transmission distance is 185m

5: thick coaxial cable. The maximum transmission distance is 500m

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