Southern Methodist University

Bobby B. Lyle School of Engineering

CEE 2342/ME 2342 Fluid Mechanics
Roger O. Dickey, Ph.D., P.E.

III. BASIC EQS. OF HYDRODYNAMICS
C. Integral Forms of the Basic Equations
1. Continuity
2. Energy
Reading Assignments:
Chapter 5 Finite Control Volume Analysis;
Section 5.1 Continuity Equation
Section 5.3 Energy Equation
C. Integral Forms of the Basic Equations
Continuity
Consider Reynolds Transport Theorem (RTT)
for physical property B, where b is the amount of
the physical property per unit mass of fluid :
( )
} }
+
c
c
=
CS CV
dA b V d b
t Dt
DB
n V

Flux of B, i.e.,
transport rate of
B per unit area
Amount of B
per unit volume
For the continuity equation, i.e., principle of
mass conservation, B = m, and b = m/m = 1.
Substituting into the RTT expression:
( ) ( ) ( )
} }
+
c
c
=
CS CV
dA V d
t Dt
Dm
n V

1 1
0, i.e., mass is
conserved within
the system
Simplifying and rearranging:


For steady flow :
( ) 0

= +
c
c
} }
CS CV
dA V d
t
n V
[Equation 5.5, p. 201]
( ) 0 =
c
c
t
( ) 0

=
}
CS
dA n V
Integral Form
of Continuity
Equation
Integral Form of
Steady Continuity
Equation
Reconsider the general, non-steady continuity
equation:

Notice that the volume integral is just the total mass
of fluid inside the CV, i.e., .
Substituting and rearranging:
( ) 0

= +
c
c
} }
CS CV
dA V d
t
n V
m
t
V d
t
CV
c
c
=
c
c
}

( )
}
=
c
c
CS
dA
t
m
n V

If the CS is fixed in space, it is of finite size, there

are a finite number of inflow and outflow streams,
and uniform flow prevails in the various inflow and
outflow regions of the CS, then piecewise
integration of the fundamental mass conservation
equation over all inflow and all outflow regions of
the CS yields finite summations:

(

=

All
in
All
out
m m
dt
dm

For steady flow, and rearranging yields: 0 =
dt
dm

= =
All
in
All
out
All
in
All
out
m m m m

0
[Equation 5.9, p. 207]
Reconsidering the previous unsteady continuity
equation:

Noting that on the left-hand side, and on
the right that , this expression
may be equivalently written:
(

=

All
in
All
out
m m
dt
dm

( )
( ) ( )
(

=

All
in in in
All
out out out
A V A V
dt
V d

VA m Q m = =

V m =
For constant density, may be factored from the
differential term on the left-hand side of the
equation, factored from the summation terms on the
right, and then divided out:
( )
(

=

All
in in
All
out out
A V A V
dt
V d
Then for steady flow, yielding:



Noting that Q = VA, this expression may be
concisely written:


=
=
All
in in
All
out out
All
in in
All
out out
A V A V
A V A V

0
( )
0 =
dt
V d

=
All
in
All
out
Q Q
[Equation 5.10, p. 207]
Energy
Reconsider Reynolds Transport Theorem (RTT)
for physical property B, where b is the amount of the
physical property per unit mass of fluid :
( )
} }
+
c
c
=
CS CV
dA b V d b
t Dt
DB
n V

Flux of B, i.e.,
transport rate of
B per unit area
Amount of B
per unit volume
For the energy equation, i.e., principle of energy
conservation, B = E, where E is defined as the
total energy stored in system mass m at any
instant in time t. Then, b = E/m e the total
energy per unit mass at time t. Substituting into
the RTT expression:
( )
} }
+
c
c
=
CS CV
dA e V d e
t Dt
DE
n V

Energy conservation is often formulated into the
first law of thermodynamics which, in narrative
terms, may be stated as:

system the into transfer
by work addition
energy of rate Net time

system the into transfer
heat by addition
energy of rate Net time
system a within
energy stored total
of increase of rate Time
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
Material
Derivative,
Dt
DE
in net
Q

in net
W

That is,

Setting the RTT expression in terms of energy
equal to the the first law of thermodynamics
yields:
in net in net
W Q
Dt
DE


+ =
( )
in net in net
CS CV
W Q dA e V d e
t

+ = +
c
c
} }
n V
[Equation 5.59, p. 237]
*Important Points
(i) Work is the result of a force acting through a
distance [FL]
(ii) Work transfer per unit time, , is termed
power having dimensions
(iii) Each term in the energy equation has power
dimensions
in net
W

T
L F
(

T
L F
(iv) heat transfer into the system
heat transfer out of the system
(v) work done on the CV contents
by the surroundings
work done by the contents of the
CV on the surroundings
> 0 Q

< 0 Q

> 0 W

< 0 W

Work, , may be separated into two terms:

where,
net rate of energy inflow due to work done
by mechanical devices, called the shaft work
net rate of energy inflow due to work done
by the pressure forces of the flowing fluid
in net
W

in net
pressure
in net
shaft in net
W W W


+ =
=
in net
shaft
W

=
in net
pressure
W

Some mechanical devices, such as pumps and

compressors, add energy to fluids .
Others, like turbines, remove energy from
flowing fluids .
Thus, is the algebraic sum of shaft work
inputs (+) and outputs ().
0 >
shaft
W

0 <
shaft
W

in net
shaft
W

From basic physics it is known that power, a scalar,

may be written as the dot product of the velocity
and force vectors. Thus, the work done on the CV
contents by fluid pressure forces is given by:

The minus sign appears because pressure acts
normal to any surface, and with defined as the
outward pointing unit normal vector, pressure force
is defined as positive when directed outward:
( )
pressure pressure
W F V =

( )n F

pdA
pressure
+ =
n

Consider a differential area element dA on the

inflow region of a CS enclosing a fluid system,
having pdA as the magnitude of the pressure force:
( )n F

pdA
pressure
=
dA
( )
( ) | | n V
F V

pdA W d
W d
pressure
pressure pressure
=
=

V
n

In this scenario, velocity V is directed inward

while the pressure force, F
pressure
, on the CS is
directed outward yielding a negative dot product,

because,
Therefore, is positive, i.e.,

as required in the inflow regions of the CS where
work is done on the CV contents by the inflowing
fluid pressure forces.
( ) | | 0

> = n V pdA W d
pressure

( ) 0

< n V pdA
0 cos 270 90 < < < u u
pressure
W d

Similarly, for a differential area element dA on the
outflow region of a CS enclosing a fluid system,
having pdA as the magnitude of the pressure force:
( )n
F

pdA
pressure
=
dA
( )
( ) | | n V
F V

pdA W d
W d
pressure
pressure pressure
=
=

V
n

In this scenario, both velocity V and the pressure

force, F
pressure
, on the CS are directed outward
yielding a positive dot product,

because,
Therefore, is negative, i.e.,

as required in the outflow regions of the CS where
work is done by the outflowing fluid pressure
forces on the CV surroundings.
( ) | | 0

< = n V pdA W d
pressure

( ) 0

> n V pdA
0 cos 90 90 > < < u u
pressure
W d

Since scalar multiplication of vectors is
commutative, the expression
shown in the figure above may be written:

Integrating over the entire CS, encompassing
various regions where the velocity vector is
directed inward, outward, and tangent to the CS:
( )dA p W d
pressure
n V

( )
} }
=
CS CS
pressure
dA p W d n V

( ) | | n V

pdA W d
pressure
=

Completing the integration on the left-hand side

yields the net rate of energy inflow due to work
done by the pressure forces of the flowing fluid,
i.e., , while multiplying the integrand on
the right by / and rearranging produces:
( )
}

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
CS
in net
pressure
dA
p
W n V

in net
pressure
W

Mass flux, i.e., mass flow rate

per unit control surface area
Substituting this expression into the overall work
term yields:
( )
}

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
CS
in net
shaft in net
dA
p
W W n V

From basic physics it is known that the energy per
unit mass, e, for fluid particles inside the CV is
the sum of; (i) true thermodynamic internal
energy including the random thermal motion of
the fluid molecules, and the intermolecular forces
acting between the molecules that make up the
fluid particle, (ii) kinetic energy per unit mass,
and (iii) potential energy per unit mass, gz:
u

2
2
V
gz
V
u e + + =
2
2

[Equation 5.56, p. 236]

Substituting the definition of e into the integral
over the CS, and the derived expression for
into the overall energy equation, [Equation 5.59,
p. 237]:
( )
( )
}
} }

|
|
.
|

\
|

+ =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + +
c
c
CS
in net
shaft in net
CS CV
dA
p
W Q dA gz
V
u V d e
t
n V
n V

2

2

in net
W

Applying the sum rule for combining the two

surface integrals over the CS yields the general
integral form of the energy equation:
( )
in net
shaft in net
CS CV
W Q
dA gz
V p
u V d e
t

2

+
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + +
c
c
} }
n V

[Equation 5.64, p. 239]

For steady flow, , thus the first term on
the left-hand side the general integral form of the
energy equation is zero yielding:
( )
in net
shaft in net
CS
W Q dA gz
V p
u

2

+ =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + +
}
n V

Integral Form of the Energy Equation Steady Flow Only

( ) 0 =
c
c
t
Energy Equation in Common Engineering
Applications
Most engineering hydrodynamics applications
involve steady, incompressible, 1-dimensional
fluid flows in confined ducts, pipes, and
channels. Consider the CV and CS in a general
confined flow:
n

V
out
V
in
n

CS
in net
shaft
W

in net
Q

z

z
in
z
out
in in in in
u p A

, , ,
out out out out
u p A

, , ,
Fluid can enter the CV only at the inflow cross-
section where the CS is perpendicular to the fluid
velocity vector V
in
, and it can exit the CV only at
the outflow cross-section where the CS is
perpendicular to the fluid velocity vector V
out
. In
all other regions of the CS, mass transfer is zero
due to the solid boundaries of the conduit.
Using piecewise integration of the steady,
integral form of the energy equation:
( )
( )
in net
shaft in net
A
out out out
out
out
out
out
A
in in in
in
in
in
in
W Q
dA gz
V p
u
dA gz
V p
u
out
in

2
2

+ =

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + +

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + +
}
}
n V
n V

Because the fluid is incompressible, density is

constant. Thus, let =
in
=
out
. Also it can be
seen that:

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
out out out
in in in
V V
V V


= =
= =
0 cos

180 cos

n V
n V
1
1
Substituting yields:
( )
in net
shaft in net
A
out out
out out
out
A
in in
in in
in
W Q
dA V gz
V p
u
dA V gz
V p
u
out
in

2
2

2

2

+ =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + +

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + +
}
}

For 1-dimensional flow, streamlines at each

section are straight and parallel, thus the pressure
distribution is hydrostatic normal to the direction
of flow, i.e., is constant over a given
cross-section.
Furthermore internal energy, , is approximately
constant over any given cross-section.
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ gz
p

Conversely, varying velocity distributions develop

over cross-sections taken through any real confined
flow due to the influence of the solid boundaries.
Apply the sum rule to separate the constant energy
terms from the non-constant kinetic energy term:
( ) ( )
( )
in net
shaft in net
A
out
out
A
out out
out
out
A
in
in
A
in in
in
in
W Q
dA V
V
dA V gz
p
u
dA V
V
dA V gz
p
u
out out
in in

2
2

2

2

+ =
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + +
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
} }
} }

Factoring the constant energy terms, and (1)

from the appropriate integrals:
( ) ( )
( )
in net
shaft in net
A
out
out
A
out out
out
out
A
in
in
A
in in
in
in
W Q
dA V
V
dA V gz
p
u
dA V
V
dA V gz
p
u
out out
in in

2
2

2

2

+ =
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + +

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
} }
} }

in
m

out
m

Notice that,



Since the flow is steady, the mass flow rate is
constant and .
}
=
in
A
in in
dA V m

(i)
}
=
out
A
out out
dA V m

(ii)
out in
m m

equal must
( )
( )
in net
shaft in net
A
out
out
out
out
out
A
in
in
in
in
in
W Q
dA V
V
m gz
p
u
dA V
V
m gz
p
u
out
in

2
2

2

2

+ =
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + +

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
}
}

Thus, let and substitute into the

energy equation:
out in
m m m

= =
If the velocities, V
in
and V
out
, were assumed to
have approximately constant velocity
distributions at each cross-section, notice that:
( ) ( ) m
V
dA V
V
dA V
V
in
A
in
in
A
in
in
in in

2 2 2
(i)
2 2 2
= ~
} }

( ) ( ) m
V
dA V
V
dA V
V
out
A
out
out
A
out
out
out out

2 2 2
(ii)
2 2 2
= ~
} }

m

Now define average velocities and , and

kinetic energy coefficients
in
and
out
for inflow
and outflow cross-sections, respectively, in just
such way that the following identities hold:
in
V
out
V
( )
}

in
A
in
in in
dA V
V
m
V

o
2 2
(i)
2 2
in

( )
}

in
A
out
out out
dA V
V
m
V

o
2 2
(ii)
2 2
out

Substituting into the energy equation:
in net
shaft in net
out out
out
out
out
in in
in
in
in
W Q
m
V
m gz
p
u
m
V
m gz
p
u

2
2

2

2

+ =
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + +

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
o

Divide through by the weight flow rate, ,

while recognizing that g = in the denominator
of the pressure energy terms, and then group
internal energy and heat transfer terms together
while rearranging:
( )
(

+ + +
= + +
m g
Q
g
u u
m g
W
g
V p
z
g
V p
z
in net in out
in net
shaft
in in in
in
out out out
out

2
2
2

2

o

m g w

=
The net shaft power input, , divided
by the weight flow rate, , gives the net
shaft energy input per unit weight. This is termed
the shaft head having length dimensions [L], and
is given the symbol h
S
:
| | T F m g

| | T L F W
in net
shaft

| | L
m g
W
h
in net
shaft
S

Since an equivalent form of

the equation for h
S
is:


*Important Point
The equation for shaft head can be rearranged to
yield a useful expression for computing net power
input/output by mechanical devices:
Q m g Q m = =

| | L
Q
W
h
in net
shaft
S

S
in net
shaft
h Q W

=

T
L F
The change in internal energy per unit weight
between the outflow and inflow sections,
less the net heat transferred per unit weight,
is the useful mechanical energy lost per unit weight
through conversion to useless heat in the form of
random thermal motion of the fluid molecules. This
difference has length dimensions [L], and it is
termed the head loss and given the symbol h
L
:
( ) g u u
in out

m g Q
in net

( )
(

=
m g
Q
g
u u
h
in net in out
L

Substituting shaft head, h
S
, and head loss, h
L
, for
the appropriate terms in the energy equation:
L S
in in in
in
out out out
out
h h
g
V p
z
g
V p
z + + + = + +
2 2
2 2
o

[Equation 5.89, p. 250 Modified and Rearranged]

*Important Points
(1) It is customary to drop the bar notation on
the velocity, i.e., simply becomes V, while
keeping in mind that,

(2) For turbulent flow of liquids in pipes and
channels, values vary from 1.01 to 1.10,
hence they are usually neglected except for
the most precise work, i.e.,
in

out
1.0
A
Q
V V
V
(3) Shaft work is typically resolved into pump and
turbine components;

where,
h
S
= net shaft work energy input
h
P
= energy input by a pump
h
T
= energy removed by a turbine
h
P
is termed the pump head, and h
T
is the
turbine head.
T P S
h h h =
(4) For any real, viscous fluid the Second Law of
Thermodynamics requires that;


Useable, or available mechanical energy in a
flowing fluid, given by the sum
is dissipated into random thermal molecular
motions (low grade heat) due to viscous and
turbulent shear stresses (friction).
0 , 0 > >
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
L
in net in out
h head loss
m g
Q
g
u u

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
g
V p
z
2
2

(5) In most hydrodynamics applications, the fluid

flow is assumed adiabatic, i.e., heat transfer
into or out of the CV is negligible, such that:
0 ~
in net
Q

Apply the previous conditions, definitions, and

assumptions for steady, incompressible,
adiabatic, one-dimensional flow between any
two cross-sections (1) and (2) perpendicular to
the flow in a continuous fluid mass, and then
rewrite the energy equation in its most easily
understood and widely applied form:
L T P
h h
g
V

p
z h
g
V

p
z + + + + = + + +
2 2
2
2 2
2
2
1 1
1
Initial Energy
At Section 1
Energy
Remaining
At Section 2
Energy Added
By a Pump
Energy Removed
By a Turbine
Energy Lost
Due to Friction
When neither pumps nor turbines are present,
that is h
P
= 0 and h
T
= 0, a very commonly
applied form of the energy equation is obtained:
L
h
g
V

p
z
g
V

p
z + + + = + +
2 2
2
2 2
2
2
1 1
1
When the fluid is assumed inviscid, h
L
0 and an
analog of the Bernoulli equation is obtained:



The Bernoulli equation may be viewed as the
frictionless special case of the more general
energy equation. It is applied when viscous and
turbulent shear stresses are deemed negligible.
g
V

p
z
g
V

p
z
2 2
2
2 2
2
2
1 1
1
+ + = + +
Similarly, when the fluid is static, both V
1
= 0 and
V
2
= 0, yielding h
L
= 0 due to lack of viscous and
turbulent shear forces, and an analog of the Basic
Equation of Hydrostatics results, as required:

p
z

p
z
2
2
1
1
+ = +
Summarizing the various terms in the energy
equation:
z
1
, z
2
= elevation heads [FL/F] or [L]
p
1
, p
2
= pressures [F/L
2
]
p
1
/, p
2
/ = pressure heads [FL/F] or [L]
V
1
, V
2
= velocities [L/T]
kinetic energy coefficients o
1
, o
2
1.0
V
1
2
/2g, V
2
2
/2g = velocity heads [FL/F] or [L]
= specific weight of the fluid [F/L
3
]
g = gravitational acceleration [L/T
2
]
h
P
= energy added by a pump [L]
h
T
= energy removed by a turbine [L]
h
L
= energy loss due to friction [L]
Each term in the energy equation represents the
amount of energy per unit weight of fluid and
the physical dimensions are,


Typical units are,
SI units

USC units -
| | L
F
L F
or
(

( ) ft or
lb
ft lb
|
.
|

\
|

( ) m or
N
m N
|
.
|

\
|

Head losses in pipes are often estimated using
the Darcy-Weisbach Equation,


where,
f = friction factor
L = pipe length [L]
D = pipe diameter [L]
g
V
D
L
f h
L
2
2
=
Other terms are as defined previously. The
Darcy-Weisbach equation will be explored in
greater detail later.
Refer to Handouts III.C.2. Energy
Equation Examples for practical examples
dealing with application of the energy equation.