11physics - Lecture - 26 Apr 2014

MS101: Physics
Chapter 11: Waves

Dr. Ahmed Amin Hussein
01007903935
ahussein32125@gmail.com
2013-2014
29 April 2014 Prepared By: Dr. Ahmed Amin 1
Chapter 11: Waves
Energy Transport by Waves
Longitudinal and Transverse Waves
Transverse Waves on Strings
Periodic Waves
Mathematical and Graphical Descriptions of Waves
Reflection and Refraction of Waves
Interference and Diffraction
Standing Waves on a String
What can waves do?
A wave can do many things.
Travel e.g. pulse on a string, telecommunications
signal down optical fiber.
Carry energy and momentum from one point to
another.
Bounce off surfaces - reflection.
Go across boundaries - refraction.
Go round corners - diffraction.
Interact and superimpose - interference.
Change shape - dispersion.
Loose energy - dissipation.

Types of waves
There are several different types of wave that we must consider.

Mechanical Waves:- These need a medium to propagate in - sound waves.

A Mechanical Wave travels with a material called a medium
As wave travels through medium particles in the medium undergo displacement
The speed of travel depends upon the mechanical properties of the medium

Non-mechanical waves:-These waves do not need a medium in which to propagate -
light waves.

Matter waves:- Particles such as protons and electrons can be treated as waves. This
forms the basis of quantum mechanics. We will not be discussing this type of wave in
this course.

Waves
Every sound we hear, every photon of light that hits our eyes, the movement of
grass blown by the wind and the regular beat of the tides are all examples of waves.

Two types of waves

Mechanical (Sound waves , water waves)
Use matter to transfer energy through a medium (solid, liquid, or gas - ropes,
water, air)

Electromagnetic
Do not need matter to transfer energy (light, radio, radio
waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light,
ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays)
11.1 Waves and Energy Transport
A wave is a disturbance that travels outward from its source.
Waves carry energy. The energy is transported outward from the source; matter is not.

Water waves are able to transfer energy without transferring matter. How this is done is by
the wave's energy traveling through the water and leaving the water molecules in place.
a wave is a disturbance that travels through a medium from one location to another.
a wave is the motion of a disturbance
29 April 2014 7 Prepared By: Dr. Ahmed Amin
When a stone is dropped into a pond, the water is disturbed from its equilibrium positions
as the wave passes; it returns to its equilibrium position after the wave has passed.
The water moves up and
down as the disturbance
moves outward.
Intensity is a measure of the amount of energy/sec that passes through a square meter of
area perpendicular to the waves direction of travel.
2 2
r 4 r 4
Power
t t
P
I = =
Intensity has units of
watts/m
2
.
This is an inverse square law. The intensity drops as the inverse square of the distance from
the source. (Light sources appear dimmer the farther away from them you are.)
Checkpoint 11.1 page 395 408
Checkpoint 11.1
A siren in a fire tower 20 m high generates a sound wave with intensity 0.090 W/m
2
at a point on the ground below the tower. What is the intensity of the sound wave
2.0 km from the tower? Assume the siren is an isotropic.

For an isotropic source, I 1/r
2

At a distance 10
2
times as far from the tower, the intensity is 10
-4
x 0.090 W/m
2
=
9.0 W/m
2
.
Example: At the location of the Earths upper atmosphere, the intensity of the Suns light is
1400 W/m
2
. What is the intensity of the Suns light at the orbit of the planet Mercury?
2
es
sun
e
4 r
P
I
t
=
2
ms
sun
m
4 r
P
I
t
=
Divide one equation by the other:
2
e m
2
10
11
2
ms
es
2
es
sun
2
ms
sun
e
m
W/m 9200 57 . 6
57 . 6
m 10 85 . 5
m 10 50 . 1
r 4
r 4
= =
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =
I I
r
r
P
P
I
I
t
t
11.2 Transverse and Longitudinal Waves
A transverse wave is where the motions of the
particles are transverse (perpendicular) to the
direction of wave travel.

Transverse waves may occur on a string, on the
surface of a liquid and throughout a solid.
A ripple on a pond and a wave on a string are easily visualized transverse waves.
A longitudinal wave is where the motions of the particles are along the same direction
as the wave propagation.

A wave in a "slinky" is a good visualization.

Sound waves in air are longitudinal waves.
Rarefaction, a region of low
density
Compression, a region of high
density
Displacement
Velocity propagation
Both types of waves can move through solids. Only longitudinal waves can move
through a fluid. A transverse wave can move along the surface of a fluid.
11.3 Transverse Waves on a String
M
Attach a wave
driver here
L
Attach a mass to a string to provide tension. The string is then shaken at one end with a
frequency f.
A wave traveling on this string will have a speed of
F
v =
where F is the force applied to the string (tension) and is the mass/unit length of the
string (linear mass density).
L
m
=
A long piece of piano wire of radius 0.4 mm is made of steel of density
7.8 X 10
3
kg/m
3
The wire is under a tension of 1.0 X10
3
N. What is the speed of
transverse waves on this wire? What is the wavelength of a wave on this wire if its
frequency is 262 Hz?

SOLUTION: Consider a 1-m-long piece of this wire. The volume of this piece
is p X (0.4 X 10
-3
m)
2
X 1 m = 5.0 X 10
-7
m
3
and the mass is 5.0 X 10
-7
m
3
X
7.8 X 10
3
kg/m
3
= 3.9 X 10
-3
kg. Hence, the mass per unit length of the wire is
3.9 X 10
-3
kg/m. From Eq. (19), the wave speed is then

Consequently, the wavelength is

Example 1
A string is tied to a pole at one end and 100 g mass at the other, and wound over a
pulley. The strings mass is 100 g, and it is 2.5 m long. If the string is plucked, at what
speed do the waves travel along the string? How could you make the waves travel
faster? Assume the acceleration due to gravity is 10 m/s
2
.

The tension in the string is the force of gravity pulling down on the weight, T = mg =
(0.1 kg)(10 m/s2) = 1 N. The equation for calculating the speed of a wave on a string
is:

This equation suggests two ways to increase the speed of the waves: increase the tension
by hanging a heavier mass from the end of the string, or replace the string with one that
is less dense.
Example 2
Since the formula for the speed of a wave on a string is
expressed in terms of the mass density of the string, well need
to calculate the mass density before we can calculate the wave
speed.

Example (text problem 11.8): When the tension in a cord is 75.0 N, the wave speed is 140
m/s. What is the linear mass density of the cord?
F
v =
The speed of a wave on a string is
( )
kg/m 10 8 . 3
m/s 140
N 0 . 75
3
2 2

= = =
v
F
Solving for the linear mass density:

11.4 Periodic Waves
A periodic wave repeats the same pattern over and over.
For periodic waves: v = f
v is the waves speed
f is the waves frequency
is the waves wavelength
All waves can be made by adding up sine waves. The sine
wave has a pattern that repeats. The length of this repeating
piece of the sine wave is called the wavelength. The
wavelength can be found by measuring the length
or distance between one peak of a sine wave and the next
peak.

The period T is measured by the amount of time it takes for a point on the wave to go
through one complete cycle of oscillations. The frequency is then f = 1/T.
Parts of a Wave
Crest: The highest point on the wave
Trough: The lowest point on the wave

The maximum
displacement from
equilibrium is amplitude
(A) of a wave.
One way to determine the wavelength is by measuring the distance between two
consecutive crests.
Example (text problem 11.13): What is the wavelength of a wave whose speed and period
are 75.0 m/s and 5.00 ms, respectively?
( )( ) m 375 0 s 10 00 5 m/s 0 75
3
. . . vT = = =

Solving for the wavelength:

T
f v

= =
11.5 Mathematical Description of a
Wave
To describe a wave, we must know the position of the particles in the medium. This requires
a function of the form y(x,t).
1.2 Mathematical Description of a wave
Need to make several assumptions before we can describe a wave.

1. Wave depends on both position, x, and time, t.

2. We have a random disturbance y(x,t) = f(x,t).

3. Wave travels in straight line in x direction.

4. Wave travels at a constant speed v.

5. Wave does not change shape - Non-dispersive.

6. Wave does not loose energy - Non-dissipative.

7. Need to define a frame of reference to understand pulse propagation.

1.2 Mathematical Description of a wave
A frame of reference allows us to quantify processes. The speed of a
car is measured with respect to the road. The road is the frame of
reference.

For a pulse there are two possible frames of reference:

1) Laboratory Frame of Reference:-

Here we define at set of axes x, y, z and as time changes the pulse
moves away from the origin.

2) Pulse Frame of Reference:-

Here we define a set of axes x, y, z that move with the pulse and at
the same speed as the pulse. The position of pulse is stationary in
this frame and so pulse is time invariant, i.e. independent of time.
Laboratory Frame
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Position
Y(x,t=0s)
Pulse Frame
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 50 100 150
Position
Y(x)
x
At time t = 0 s both
frames of reference
coincide. Consider two
points, x in laboratory
frame and x in pulse
frame.
Laboratory Frame
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Position
Y(Ax,t=t)
Ax
After time t, pulse in
laboratory frame moves
and point is now Ax
from origin.
Pulse Frame
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 50 100 150
Position
Y(x)
x
In pulse frame the
point x is unchanged
but
vt
axes have moved a
distance vt.
29 April 2014 Prepared By: Dr. Ahmed Amin
37
1.2 Mathematical description of a wave
Is there anyway we can relate the two frames of reference?
Let us look at pulse in the pulse frame of reference:

Pulse is described by an arbitrary function.
y(x) = f(x)

The pulse has the same profile irrespective of the frame of
reference. So in the laboratory frame of reference
y(x,t) = f(x)

It is easy to show that
Ax = x+vt
x = Ax-vt
Laboratory Frame
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Position
Y(x,t=0s)
Pulse Frame
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 50 100 150
Position
Y(x)
x
Laboratory Frame
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Position
Y(Ax,t=t)
Ax
Pulse Frame
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 50 100 150
Position
Y(x)
x
vt
29 April 2014 Prepared By: Dr. Ahmed Amin
39
( ) kx t A t x y = e cos ) , (
t t e 2 2
= = =
v
f
v
k
+ is used for a wave traveling in the x direction, and
is used for a wave traveling in the +x direction.
is called the wave number.
Note: it would also be valid to use the sine function in the above description.
( ) kx t e
is called the phase (radians).
The above picture is a snapshot (time is frozen). Two points on the wave are in phase if:
t
n x x
n kx kx
=
=
1 2
1 2
2
(n = 1, 2, 3,)
Example (text problem 11.21): A wave on a string has an equation:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) x t t x y rad/m 00 . 6 rad/sec 600 sin mm 00 . 4 ) , ( =
(a) What is the amplitude of the wave?
(b) What is the wavelength?
A = 4.00 mm
m 05 1
rad/m 00 6
2 2
.
. k
= = =
t t
The wave number k is 6.00 rad/m.

( ) kx t A t x y = e sin ) , (
Compare this to
(d) What is the wave speed?
(e) What direction is the wave traveling.
(c) What is the period?
sec 10 05 1
rad/sec 600
2 2
2
= = = . T
t
e
t
( ) m/s 100
rad/m 00 . 6
rad/sec 600
2
2
= = =
|
.
|
\
|
= =
k
f f v
e
t
t
Along the +x direction.

Example continued:
11.6 Graphing Waves
The next two slides show three snapshots of a traveling wave y(x,t) = A cos (et kx)
where A = 1.0 m, k = 1 rad/m, and e = t rad/sec.
46
Wave travels to the
left
(x-direction)
time
47
Wave travels to the
right
(+x-direction)
time
11.7 The Principle of Superposition
For small amplitudes, waves will pass through each other and emerge unchanged.
Superposition Principle: When two or more waves overlap, the net disturbance at any
point is the sum of the individual disturbances due to each wave.
Displacement
The combination of two overlapping
waves is called superpositon.

Displacement in the same direction
produce constructive interference.

When two waves are added together
the resultant wave is larger than the
individual displacements and this is
constructive interference.
29 April 2014
Prepared By: Dr. Ahmed Amin
49
Destructive Interference
Displacements in opposite directions
produce destructive interference.

When positive and negative
displacements are added, the
resultant wave is the difference
between the pulses, this is called
destructive interference.
CONSTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE
DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE
Two traveling wave pulses:
left pulse travels right; right
pulse travels left.
X11.8 Reflection and Refraction
At an abrupt boundary between two media, a reflection will occur. A portion of the
incident wave will be reflected backward from the boundary.
When you have a wave that travels from a
low density medium to a high density
medium, the reflected wave pulse will be
inverted.
The frequency of the reflected wave remains
the same.
When a wave is incident on the boundary
between two different media, a portion of
the wave is reflected, and a portion will be
transmitted into the second medium.
The frequency of the transmitted wave also remains the same. However, both the waves
speed and wavelength are changed such that:
2
2
1
1

v v
f = =
The transmitted wave will also suffer a change in propagation direction
(refraction).
Example (text problem 11.36): Light of wavelength 0.500 m in air enters the water in a
swimming pool. The speed of light in water is 0.750 times the speed in air. What is the
wavelength of the light in water?
m 375 0 m 500 0
750 0
air
air
air
air
water
water
water
water
air
air

. .
v
v .
v
v
v v
f
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
= =
Since the frequency is unchanged in both media:
X11.9 Interference and Diffraction
Two waves are considered coherent if they have the same frequency and maintain a fixed
phase relationship.
Two waves are considered incoherent if the phase relationship between them varies
randomly.
When waves are in phase, their superposition gives constructive interference.
When waves are one-half a cycle out of phase, their superposition gives destructive
interference.
When two waves travel different distances
to reach the same point, the phase
difference is determined by:
t 2
difference phase
2 1
=
d d

difference path
2 1
=
d d
Diffraction is the spreading of a wave around an obstacle in its path.
11.10 Standing Waves
Pluck a stretched string such that y(x,t) = A
sin(et + kx)
When the wave strikes the wall, there will be a reflected wave that travels back along the
string.
The reflected wave will be 180 out of phase with the wave incident on the wall. Its form
is y(x,t) = A sin (et kx).
Apply the superposition principle to the two waves on the string:
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) kx t A
kx t kx t A
t x y t x y t x y
sin cos 2
sin sin
) , ( ) , ( ) , (
2 1
e
e e
=
+ =
+ =
The previous expression is the mathematical form of a standing wave.
N
N
N
N
A
A
A
A node (N) is a point of zero oscillation. An antinode (A) is a point of maximum
displacement. All points between nodes oscillate up and down.
The nodes occur where y(x,t) = 0.
( ) 0 sin cos 2 , = = kx t A t x y e
The nodes are found from the locations where sin kx = 0, which happens when kx = 0, t,
2t,. That is when kx = nt where n = 0,1,2,
The antinodes occur when sin kx = 1; that is where
( )

, , , n
n
kx
kx
2 1 0 and
2
1 2
,
2
3
,
2
=
+
=
=
t
t t
If the string has a length L, and both ends are fixed, then y(x = 0, t) = 0 and y(x = L, t) =
0.
( ) ( )
( )
n
L
n L
n kL
kL t L x y
k t x y
2
2
0 sin ,
0 0 sin , 0
=
=
=
= =
= =
t
t
The wavelength of a standing
wave:
where n = 1, 2, 3,
n
L
n
2
=
These are the permitted wavelengths of standing waves on a string; no
others are allowed.
The speed of the wave is:
n n
f v =
The allowed frequencies are then:
L
nv v
f
n
n
2
= =
n =1, 2, 3,
The n = 1 frequency is called the fundamental frequency.
1
2 2
nf
L
v
n
L
nv v
f
n
n
=
|
.
|
\
|
= = =
All allowed frequencies (called harmonics) are integer multiples of f

1
.
Example (text problem 11.51): A Guitars E-string has a length 65 cm and is stretched to a
tension of 82 N. It vibrates with a fundamental frequency of 329.63 Hz. Determine the mass
per unit length of the string.
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
kg/m 10 5 4
m 65 0 * 2 Hz 63 329
N 82
2
4
2 2
2
2
1
2
1 1
2
= =
= = =
.
. .
L f
F
f
F
v
F
F
v =
For a wave on a string:
Solving for the linear mass density:
Summary
Intensity
Wave Properties (f, , v, amplitude)
Transverse vs. Longitudinal Waves
Mathematical Description of a Wave
Reflection, Refraction, Interference, and Diffraction
Superposition of Waves
Standing Waves on a String
QUESTIONS ?

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MS101: Physics

Chapter 11: Waves

Solving for the linear mass density:

Solving for the wavelength:

The wave number k is 6.00 rad/m.

Along the +x direction.

All allowed frequencies (called harmonics) are integer multiples of f

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