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Part 1
Fluoroscopy
X-ray unit
Fluorescent
screen
Thick,dark
Thin, light
mirror
Fluoroscopy
Advantages
Fast inspection technique No film processing required Can permit viewing in all direction
Disadvantages
No permanent record Hazardous to operator Limited to thickness (Good for thin material)
Mask of any unwanted light from viewer Ensure the background light is subdued Check the radiograph for correct identification Assess the radiographs density Calculate the radiographs sensitivity Check the radiograph for any artifacts Assess the radiograph for any defects present State the action to be taken, acceptable, rejectable or repair
Principles of Radiography
X or Gamma radiation is imposed upon a test object Radiation is transmitted to varying degrees dependant upon the density of the material through which it is travelling Thinner areas and materials of a less density show as darker areas on the radiograph
Thicker areas and materials of a greater density show as lighter areas on a radiograph
Applicable to metals,non-metals and composites
Industrial Radiography
X-Ray Radiography
X-Rays are produced form electrical equipment referred to as x-ray tubes or x-ray tube heads
Radiographic Inspection
Source Radiation beam Image quality indicator
Radiographic film
Test specimen
Film
Thin part
Thick part Film
Measuring Radiation
WAVELENGTH: New: Nanometers (nm) 1nm = 10-9 Old: Angstroms () 1 = 10-10 m
BIOLOGICAL EFFECT:
Prefixes
1012 109 106 103 102 10 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-6 10-9 10-12
Definition
Tera Giga Mega Kilo Hecto Deca Deci Centi Milli Micro Nano pico
Symbol
T G M K h da d c m n p
D1 I1 D2
I 1 D2 2 = I 2 D1 2
I2
Example: 1
An x-ray tube emits 40 msv/h of radiation at an auto-monitored distance of 1m. What is the distance where safety barriers are to be erected at 7.5 msv/h? An emergency is when an unshielded isotope emits 6.4 sv/h at the barriers at 45m distance. What will be the exposure at 1m? Determine the intensity of radiation at a distance of 1m if a survey meter reveals 0.02 mr/h at 35m. The intensity of radiation on a survey meter is 333msv/h at 15m. What distance is between the meter and radiation source if the meter shows 75 msv/h?
Example: 2
Example: 3
Example: 4
I1 = 40 msv/h I2 = 7.5msv/h D2 =
D1 = 1m D2 = ? D2 = 40 7 .5 X 12
Question 2
D1 = 45m D2 = 1m 2 I2 = 45 X 6.4 12
Question 3
Question 4
Advantages of Radiography
Permanent record
Internal flaws
Can be used on most materials Direct image of flaws Real - time imaging
Disadvantages of Radiography
Health hazard Sensitive to defect orientation Access to both sides required Limited by material thickness Skilled interpretation required
Relatively slow
High capital outlay and running costs
What is radiation?
Waves of energy associated with electrical and magnetic fields Electrical and magnetic fields at right angles to each other and to the direction of propagation
Electromagnetic Radiation
have no effect on the human sense They have adverse effects on the body They penetrate matter They travel at the speed of light They obey the inverse square law They may be scattered They affect photographic emulsion They may be refracted and diffracted
Shortening Wavelength
E = hf
Planks constant = 6.626196 x 10-34J.s.
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Industrial radiography Microwaves Ultra Infra red violet TV Electric Waves
10-10 10-8
10-6
10-4
10-2
1cm
102
104
106
108
Wavelength
Ionization
Electrons Protons & Neutrons
8+
Ionization
Electrons Protons & Neutrons
Ionising Radiation
8+
Ionization
Electrons Protons & Neutrons
Ionising Radiation
Displaced electron 8+
8+
Atomic structure
N SHELL
M SHELL L SHELL K SHELL
Proton + ve charge
Neutron no charge Electron ve charge
Atomic structure
ELECTRONS: -Ve Charge
NEUTRONS: No Charge
Example of a Helium Atom Atomic number: 2 Atomic mass number: 4 The atom carries no overall charge.
Atomic Structure
Protons : +ve charge Neutrons : No electrical charge Electrons : -ve charge , mass 1/1836 of a proton Number protons = Number electrons
Atomic Structure
ATOMIC NUMBER (Z)
The number of protons this dictates the element type.
Radiography
X-ray production
X-Ray Production
X-rays are produced when electrons strike a positively charged nucleus
The kinetic energy of the electrons is converted into electromagnetic radiation (X-rays)
X ray tube
Cathode - ve
Anode + ve
Lower velocity
Characteristic X-ray
(Monochromatic ray)
X-RAY PRODUCTION
CATHODE
1. PROCESS THAT MAKE THE ELECTRON BOILS OUT FROM THE HOT WIRE IS CALLED THERMIONIC EMISSION 2. IT IS CONTROLLED BY THE MILIAMP CONTROL WHICH SUPPLY CURRENT TO THE CATHODE
ANODE
1. INCLINED TUNGSTEN TARGET EMBEDDED IN A LARGE LUMP OF COPPER 2. USED AS A TARGET FOR THE ELECTRON TO HIT,AND THE IMPACT WILL PRODUCE X-RAYS AND HEAT. 3. VOLTAGE THAT SUPPLY TO THE ANODE IS CONTROLED BY THE kV CONTROL. 4. THE HIGHER THE VOLTAGE ACROSS THE TUBE,THE HIGHER THE VELOCITY OF THE ELECTRONS AND THE GREATER THE PENETRATING POWER
3. INCREASE THE CURRENT, WILL INCREASE THE INTENSITY OF THE ELECTRON STREAM AND HENCE THE RADIATION
X-Ray Production
Kilovoltage
Increase
Decrease
Decrease electron speed
X-Ray Production
Amperage
Increase
Increase filament temperature Increase number of electrons Increase amount of radiation Reduce the exposure time
Decrease
Decrease filament temperature Decrease number of electrons
The original energy of the electrons. How rapid the electrons are decelerated. The atomic number of the target material.
A.C. Circuit
+
The effect of a.c. on the direction of current flow. In an x-ray tube x-rays can only be produced when the current is travelling from the cathode (-ve) to the anode (+ve).
In the half wave rectified circuit the anode is only positive every half cycle, therefore the electrons will only flow from the filament during that time. The x-rays are only produced during the positive half cycle.
The introduction of separate rectifiers into the circuit, produces a constant electron flow from the cathode to anode and therefore a relatively constant output of xrays. This circuit is know as a Greinacher circuit.
Portable/lighter
Disadvantages Low output/unit time Longer exposure times Low duty cycle 50%
FOCAL SPOT
FOCAL SPOT SIZE DETERMINED BY Image Dimension - (2 X Hole Size) 4 mm - (2 X 0.25) = 3.5 mm
DEVELOPED FILM
Radiography
Gamma ray production
Inserted Stable cobalt - 59 Each Co 59 Nucleus contains :27 protons 32 neutrons Neutron Flux
Removed
Unstable cobalt - 60
Each Co 60 Nucleus contains :27 protons 33 neutrons
Nuclear Reactor
Only a relatively few Co 59 atoms become Co 60 depending on the time in the reactor and the magnitude of the neutron flux
Radioactive Isotopes
Some isotopes are stable others are not Unstable isotopes transform into another element and in so doing emit radiation in 3 forms Alpha (particles) Beta (particles) Gamma (rays)
ISOTOPE
RADIOACTIVE AREAS THE GREATER THE AMOUNT THE GREATER THE SPECIFIC ACTIVITY
GAMMA RAYS
EMMITTED AFTER BETA OR ALPHA PARTICLES. Photons of energy they are not particles.
Rate of Decay
Curie 3.7 x 1010 disintegration / second Becquerel 1 disintegration / second 1 Curie = 37 Gbq Half Life Time taken for the activity of an isotope to reduce by a half Cobalt 60 Iridium 192 Ytterbium 169 Selenium 75 5.3 years 74 days 32 days 120 days
Wavelengths
Long
Wavelength
Short
Gamma line spectrum (discrete energies), the wave length is not of a fixed nature. A number of frequencies will be emitted for most sources. Descrite wavelengths gives Gamma an advantage to give a better latitude.
Scattering process
1. Rayleigh Scattering
Soft radiation
The primary photon is scattered by the orbital electrons without removing any electrons . The photon is deflected but does not change the energy
Absorption process
1. Photoelectric Process
Low energy level - Below 0.3 Mev
Ejected electron
Low Energy X-ray (total energy beam absorbed by this electron)
Absorption process
1. Compton Effect Energy level-(0.3 - 3.0 Mev) photon X-ray Ejected electron
Scattered radiation
Moderate Energy ( 0.3 - 3.0 Mev) Most commonly happen in radiography industry using Ir 192
Absorption process
3. Pair Production
Energy level (Above 3.0 Mev) Thick material using Co 60 High Energy X-ray Ejected electron
Scattered radiation
Ejected positron
Photoelectric effect
Occurs at low energies The complete absorption of a photon of energy by an atom with the emission of an electron
Compton effect
Occurs at higher energies
The interaction of a photon of energy by an electron resulting in the ejection of an electron from its atom with a certain amount of energy. The remaining energy is scattered this is known as COMPTON SCATTER
Pair production
Occurs at very high energies The simultaneous formation of an positron (+ve electron) and a electron as a result of the interaction of a photon with the nucleus of the atom. The particles are soon afterwards destroyed thus creating photons this is known as Annihilation
Less scatter
Equipment initially less costly