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Plants reproduce either sexually through male and female gametes or asexually without gametes. Sexual reproduction involves pollination which can be self-pollination within a flower or cross-pollination between flowers. Cross-pollination is encouraged by separate male and female plants, flowers maturing at different times, or self-incompatibility. Asexual reproduction occurs through vegetative propagation or apomixis which produces seeds without fertilization. The type of reproduction determines whether a plant population is heterogeneous or homogeneous in genotype and progeny.
Plants reproduce either sexually through male and female gametes or asexually without gametes. Sexual reproduction involves pollination which can be self-pollination within a flower or cross-pollination between flowers. Cross-pollination is encouraged by separate male and female plants, flowers maturing at different times, or self-incompatibility. Asexual reproduction occurs through vegetative propagation or apomixis which produces seeds without fertilization. The type of reproduction determines whether a plant population is heterogeneous or homogeneous in genotype and progeny.
Plants reproduce either sexually through male and female gametes or asexually without gametes. Sexual reproduction involves pollination which can be self-pollination within a flower or cross-pollination between flowers. Cross-pollination is encouraged by separate male and female plants, flowers maturing at different times, or self-incompatibility. Asexual reproduction occurs through vegetative propagation or apomixis which produces seeds without fertilization. The type of reproduction determines whether a plant population is heterogeneous or homogeneous in genotype and progeny.
particular plant species or the way it reproduces determines
its genetic characteristics the breeding approach. 1. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION Using sex organs to form next generation / to produce seeds.
Important steps:
1. Production of gametes (gametogenesis) 2. Pollination Transfer of pollen from anther (male organ) to the stigma (female organ). 3. Fertilization The union of male and female gametes to produce new genotypes.
1. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION (CONT.)
POLLINATION Transfer of pollen from anther (male organ) to the stigma (female organ).
Two kinds of pollination, Self pollination Cross pollination Transfer of pollen from anther to stigma of the same flower / plant SELF POLLINATION Natural mechanisms that encourages self pollination:
1. Cleistogamy Pollination happens when flower is still closed. Example: Rice
SELF POLLINATION 2. Stigma protected by anther Anthesis and pollination occur instantaneously once the flower blooms. Many pollen are produced, covering the stigma, hence preventing pollination by pollen from outside. Example: lime, tomato and chilli
SELF POLLINATION (CONT.) Chilli flower 3. Stigma and anther protected by other parts of flower. Male (stamen) and female (pistil) organs covered by keel, i.e. two fused petals. Example: Leguminosae family, sub-family Papilionoideae.
SELF POLLINATION (CONT.) Transfer of pollen from anther to stigma of flower of different plant. CROSS POLLINATION Natural mechanisms to promote cross pollination:
1. Dieocious
Male and female flowers are formed on different plants. Have male and female plants. Example: Papaya, salak CROSS POLLINATION(CONT.) Male salak flower Female salak flower 2. Monoecious
Male and female flowers are in separate positions on the same plant but mature at slightly different times. Example: Oil palm, corn and rubber.
CROSS POLLINATION(CONT.) 3. Dichogamy Anther and stigma from hemaphrodite flower or flower of monoecious plant mature at different times. Protogyne Stigma (female flower) matures before anther (male flower). Example: Potato, cassava and cashew. CROSS POLLINATION(CONT.) Protogyne: Potato flower CROSS POLLINATION(CONT.) 3. Dichogamy (cont.)
Protandry Anther (male flower) matures before stigma (female flower). Example: Starfruit and rubber.
Pollens are unable to fertilize ovule (female gamete) of the same flower/plant due to genetic factor (self incompatibility gene)
Example: Potato, passion fruit and starfruit.
CROSS POLLINATION(CONT.) In some species, there are more than one mechanism to promote cross pollination: 1. Rubber and corn: monoecious and protandry. 2. Potato, Sweet potato: Self- incompatibility and protogyne 3. Starfruit & passion fruit: Self- incompatibility and protandry
CROSS POLLINATION(CONT.) METHODS TO DETERMINE MODES OF POLLINATION 1. Identify flower formation system. 2. Isolate plants. No fruit/seed cross pollinated Fruit set/seed set self pollinated and possibly cross pollinated 3. Selfing. To observe the effects of inbreeding. Present cross pollinated. Absent / minimal self pollinated.
2. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION Does not involve sex or union of male and female gametes.
VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION o Stem/branch/root cuttings e.g. cassava o Grafting e.g. rubber, rambutan & durian o Rhizome e.g. tumeric & ginger o Stolon e.g. grass o Tuber e.g. potato & sweet potato o Tiller e.g. pineapple , sugarcane & banana APOMIXIS Formation of seeds without union of gametes, i.e. fertilization. APOMIXIS (CONT.) Apogamy Embryo formation from synergids or antipodals
Apospory Embryo develops from somatic cell such as nucellus and integument.
Diplospory Embryo develops from megasporocyte.
Adventitious embryo Embryo develops directly from nucellus and integument cells without involving embryo sac cells.
Parthenogenesis Embryo develops from unfertilized eggs. APOMIXIS (CONT.)
1. Obligate apomixis Apomixis reproduction is the main method of reproduction. Example: mangosteen
APOMIXIS (CONT.) 2. Facultative apomixis
Both apomixis and sexual reproduction occur. Example: Guinea grass (Panicum maximum), Citrus sp. CHARACTERISTICS OF CROSS POLLINATED, SELF POLLINATED AND ASEXUAL PLANTS Characteristic Cross pollinated Self pollinated Asexual Population Heterogeneous Homogeneous Homogeneous Genotype Heterozygous Homozygous Heterozygous Gamete Different Similar Different Progeny Different & heterozygous Similar & homozygous Similar & heterozygous Inbreeding depression Present Absent Present Incompatibility Present Absent Present