Control System Technology

in Every Aspects of
Automation
09-05-2014 Prof. Bidyadhar Subudhi
Professor Bidyadhar Subudhi
Department of Electrical Engineering
National Institute of Technology Rourkela
bidyadhar@nitrkl.ac.in
Control systems research has a long history of mathematical rigor,
with application to diverse branches of science and engineering.
Control concepts have been crucial in the design and development
of high performance airplanes, fuel-efficient automobiles,
industrial process plants, manufacturing enterprises, smart phones,
planetary rovers, communication networks, and many other
applications across various sectors of industry.
In these and other complex engineering systems, control theory
and its technological artifacts are also widely used to ensure
reliable, efficient, and cost-effective operations.
INTRODUCTION
09-05-2014 Prof. Bidyadhar Subudhi
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EMERGING APPLICATIONS
09-05-2014 Prof. Bidyadhar Subudhi
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Some of the emerging applications in control field:
Aerospace Control
Control in the Process Industries
Automotive Control
Control in Robotics
Control in Biological Systems
Control for Renewable Energy and Smart
Grids
System
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A system may be complex if its dimension
(order) is too high and model (if available) is
nonlinear, interconnected, and information on the
system is uncertain such that classical techniques
cannot easily handle the problem.

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Control Design Steps
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Modelling (System Identification):Linear/Nonlinear/Time
Invariant/Time Varying
Structure Identification
Parameter Estimation
Translate required in terms of Specification
Development of Control Algorithm
Linear Controller
Nonlinear Controller
Robust Controller
Optimal Controller
Intelligent Controller
Stability check
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Simulation
Software Implementation
SIMULINK/MATLAB/HLL Programming
Hardware Implementation
Choice of Computing Platform
PC/DSP/PLC/FPGA/dSPACE/VLSI
Sensors
Actuators


Most of control systems nowadays are implemented using
either computers such as PCs or Digital Signal Processes
(DSP), which are specially designed to carry out
computations related to control algorithm realizations.

Electromechanical
System (Robotic System)
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Electrical
Subsystem
Dynamics
Algebraic
Torque
Coupling
Mechanical
Subsystem
Dynamics
Input voltage
Current
Torque
Output position
Typically Neglected
Electrical Dynamics
Simplified System
Classification of Control Techniques
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Classical control: PID control, developed in 1940s
Optimal Control: LQR, Kalman Filter, H
2
control, Model
Predictive Control developed in 1960s and 1970s to achieve
certain optimal performance
Robust Control: H control, developed in 1980s &90s to handle
systems with uncertainties and disturbances and with high
performances
Intelligent Control: Knowledge based control, adaptive control,
learning control, neural and fuzzy control etc. researched heavily
in 1990s, developed to handle systems with unknown models.
Adaptive Control: Linear/Nonlinear & Discrete, Lyapunov based,
STC/MRAC
Nonlinear Control: Feedback linearisation, Sliding mode control,
Backstepping control
Renewable energy
The use of renewable energy increased greatly just after the first big
oil crisis in the late seventies. At that time, economic issues were the
most important factors, hence interest in such processes decreased
when oil prices fell.

The current resurgence of interest in the use of renewable energy is
driven by the need to reduce the high environmental impact of fossil-
based energy systems.

Harvesting energy on a large scale is undoubtedly one of the main
challenges of our time. Future energy sustainability depends heavily
on how the renewable energy problem is addressed in the next few
decades.
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The combination of renewable energy sources and
energy storage systems requires new methodologies for
the management and operation of grid in order to
maintain and improve the power stability and quality.
Renewable energy sources are to be integrated with the
power electronic technology which is incorporated with
the grid which plays an important role in distributed
generation.
Renewable energy sources like wind, Sun and Hydro
are the reliable alternative to the traditional energy
sources such as oil, natural gas or coal.

Renewable energy sources experience a vast
development worldwide with Germany, Denmark,
Japan and USA as leaders in the development in this
field.


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General structure for distributed power system
having different input power sources
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Operating System for DGS
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Industry must overcome a number of technical issues to deliver
renewable energy in significant quantities.

Control is one of the key enabling technologies for the deployment
of renewable energy systems.

Solar and wind power require effective use of advanced control
techniques.

In addition, smart grids cannot be achieved without extensive use
of control technologies at all levels
15
Control is a key enabling technology for the
deployment of renewable energy systems.

Solar and wind power require advanced
control techniques for high- performance
and reliable operation.
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The current focus is on two forms of renewable energywind and
solarand on the role of smart grids in addressing the problems
associated with the efficient and reliable delivery and use of
electricity and with the integration of renewable sources.

Solar and wind power plants exhibit changing dynamics,
nonlinearities, and uncertaintieschallenges that require advanced
control strategies to solve effectively.
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The use of more efficient control strategies would not only
increase the performance of these systems, but would increase
the number of operational hours of solar and wind plants and
thus reduce the cost per kilowatt-hour (KWh) produced.
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Both wind and solar have tremendous potential for fulfilling the
worlds energy needs.

In the case of wind, if conventional onshore wind turbines with 80-
m towers were installed on 13% of the earths surface, the estimated
wind power that could be commercially viable is 72 terawatt (TW).



That amounts to almost five times the global power consumption in
all forms, which currently averages about 15 TW.

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Wind turbines have to adapt to those variations, so their
efficiency and reliability depend heavily on the control
strategy applied.

As wind energy penetration in the grid increases, additional
challenges are being revealed: response to grid disturbances,
active power control and frequency regulation, reactive power
control and voltage regulation, restoration of grid services
after power outages, and wind prediction, for example.

20
The main control problems with solar plants are related to sun tracking and
control of the thermal variables.

Although control of the sun-tracking mechanisms is typically done in an open-
loop mode, control of the thermal variables is mainly done in closed loop.
Solar plants exhibit changing dynamics, nonlinearities, and uncertainties,
characteristics that result in detuned performance with classical PID control.

Advanced control strategies that can cope with these issues are needed for
better performance and for decreasing the cost per kilowatt-hour generated.
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Optimal Control Of Solar Energy Plant
Solar power plant systems cannot be controlled with simple control strategies; they
require advanced algorithms to compute the solar reflector positions as well as for self-
calibration and prediction of the reflectors .

The sun vector needs to be computed, and for each heliostat, the normal vector is
computed such that it divides the angle formed by the sun vector and the vector joining
the center of the heliostat with the receiver. The current trend in solar concentrator
tracking systems is to use open-loop controllers that compute the direction of the solar
vector based on location and time.

Nevertheless, error sources such as time of day, sun model, latitude and longitude of the
site, heliostat position in the field, and control interval increase the complexity of the
control system.

Structural and mechanical sources of error, mainly due to tolerances (joints, encoder) and
incorrect mirror facet alignment (optical errors), further add to the approximations in
calculating solar position and other variables.
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PV Array Control
It can be done by Maximum power point
tracking(MPPT)which is a technique that grid tie
inverters, solar battery chargers and similar devices
use to get the maximum power from one or more
PV devices.
MPPT can be classified as Perturb and
observe,increamental conductance, current sweep
method and constant voltage.
Maximum power point tracking
algorithms
MPPT algorithms are necessary in PV applications
because the MPP of a solar panel varies with the
irradiation and temperature, so the use of MPPT
algorithms is required in order to obtain the maximum
power from a solar array.
Two common algorithms are P&O and the InCond
algorithms which are easy to implement. Other
techniques based on different principles are fuzzy logic
control, neural network, fractional open circuit voltage or
short circuit current, current sweep, etc.

Hill-climbing techniques
Both P&O and InCond algorithms are based on the
hill-climbing principle, which consists of moving the
operation point of the PV array in the direction in which
power increases.
The advantages of both methods are the simplicity and
low computational power they need. The shortcomings
are also well-known: oscillations around the MPP and
they can get lost and track the MPP in the wrong
direction during rapidly changing atmospheric
conditions.
Perturb and observe
Hill-climbing involves a perturbation on the duty cycle
of the power converter and P&O a perturbation in the
operating voltage of the DC link between the PV array
and the power converter.
In this method, the sign of the last perturbation and the
sign of the last increment in the power are used to decide
what the next perturbation should be.
As can be seen in Figure below on the left of the MPP
incrementing the voltage increases the power whereas on
the right decrementing the voltage increases the power.
Fig.1.3 PV panel characteristic curves.
If there is an increment in the power, the
perturbation should be kept in the same direction
and if the power decreases, then the next
perturbation should be in the opposite direction.
Based on these facts, the algorithm is
implemented. The process is repeated until the
MPP is reached. Then the operating point
oscillates around the MPP.
The flow chart of the algorithm is depicted below:

Incremental conductance
The incremental conductance algorithm is based on the
fact that the slope of the curve power vs. voltage
(current) of the PV module is zero at the MPP, positive
(negative) on the left of it and negative (positive) on the
right, as can be seen in Fig 1.3.
V/P=0 (I/P=0)at the MPP
V/P>0 (I/P<0)on the left
V/P<0 (I/P>0)on the right
By comparing the increment of the power vs. the
increment of the voltage (current) between two
consecutives samples, the change in the MPP voltage can
be determined.


The flowchart of the algorithm is given below:
Contd.
The drawbacks of these techniques are mainly two. The
first and main one is that they can easily lose track of the
MPP if the irradiation changes rapidly. In case of step
changes they track the MPP very well, because the
change is instantaneous and the curve does not keep on
changing. However, when the irradiation changes
following a slope, the curve in which the algorithms are
based changes continuously with the irradiation as
shown in Fig 1.4.
Contd.
Fig.1.4 P-V depending on the irradiation
Future Trends of PV
System
PV systems without transformers would be the
most suitable option in order to minimize the cost
of the total system.
The control topics such as improvements of
MPPT control,THD improvements and reduction
of current or voltage ripples will be the focus of
research.
Wind Energy
Charles F. Brush is widely credited with designing and erecting the worlds first
automatically operating wind turbine for electricity generation. The turbine, which
was installed in Cleveland, Ohio, in 1887, operated for 20 years with a peak power
production of 12 kW (Fig. 2).

An automatic control system ensured that the turbine achieved effective action at 6.6
rpm (330 rpm at the dynamo) and that the dc voltage was kept between 70 and 90
volts.

Another remarkable project in early wind energy research was the 1.25-MW wind
turbine developed by Palmer Putnam in the U.S.

The giant wind turbine, which was 53 m (175 feet) in diameter, was installed in
Vermont, Pennsylvania, around 1940 and featured two blades with a hydraulic pitch
control system.
37
New multidisciplinary computer design tools, able to simulate,
analyze, and redesign in a concurrent engineering way the
aerodynamics, mechanics, and electrical and control systems
under several conditions and external scenarios, have extended
the capability to develop more complex and efficient wind
turbines.

In this new approach (Fig.3), the control system designs, and the
designers understanding of the systems dynamics from the
control standpoint, are playing a central role in new engineering
achievements.
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Far better than in the old days, when the design of any machine was carried
out under a rigid and sequential strategy, starting from the pure aerodynamics
and following with the mechanical, the electrical, and finally the control
system design, the new tools have opened the door to a more central role for
control engineers.

The new philosophy brings a concurrent engineering approach, where all the
engineering teams work simultaneously to achieve the optimum wind turbine
design.

This strategy allows the control engineers to interact with designers from the
other fields from the very beginning, discussing and changing the
aerodynamics, mechanics, and electrical systems to improve the dynamic
behavior, efficiency, reliability, availability, and cost, and finally to design the
most appropriate controllers for the machine.
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Fig.3 Multidisciplinary
computer design tools for
wind turbine design
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Conversion from Wind power
to Electric power
41
Wind turbine technology
Types of wind turbine technology:
Variable speed wind turbines
Current wind power technology:
Two types:
Variable speed concept utilizing doubly fed induction
generator(DFIG)
Variable speed concept utilizing full power converter
Grid connection standards for wind farms
Two types:
Voltage fault ride through capability of wind turbines
Power quality requirements for grid connected wind turbines
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Variable speed wind
turbines
It depends on wind speed in order to optimize
the energy captured from wind.
Annual energy captured is about 5% greater
than the fixed speed technology and the active
and reactive power generated can be controlled
easily.
Rapid power fluctuations are scarce because the
rotor acts as a flywheel.
Grid voltage can be controlled as the reactive
power generation can be varied.

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Current wind power
technology
a) Variable speed concept utilizing doubly fed
induction generator(DFIG):
The converter feeds the rotor winding while the
stator winding is connected directly to the grid.
By decoupling mechanical and electrical
frequencies we can vary the electrical rotor
frequency.
The converter cannot operate in full range as the
converter is smaller as compared to the rated
power of the machine and due to small size
losses are lower.
44
Nowadays, there are essentially two types of wind turbines: constant-speed and
variable-speed machines. Until the late nineties, the constant-speed concept
dominated the market.

Today, it still represents a significant share of the operating wind turbines, but
newer requirements have led to the emergence of variable-speed designs.
Three main alternative strategies are used for regulating the amount of power
captured by the rotor:
passive stall control or fixed pitch, variable pitch control, and active stall control.

So far, over the entire range of wind turbine sizes, no one of these strategies has
taken the lead over the others.

However, as machines get larger and power production increases, the trend is
toward pitch control and active stall control.

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The configuration of a fixed-speed wind turbine is based on a gearbox and an
asynchronous generator, which is usually a squirrel-cage induction generator to
reduce costs.

The gearbox links the wind turbine shaft with the rotor of a fixed-speed
generator, providing the high rotational speed required by the generator.

The generator produces electricity through a direct grid connection, and a set of
capacitors is used to compensate reactive power.


Due to lack of a frequency converter, the generator speed is dictated by the grid
frequency. One disadvantage of fixed-speed operation is poor aerodynamic
efficiency, particularly at partial-load operation.

From the electrical systems standpoint, another disadvantage is that this type of
operation has a detrimental effect on voltage because asynchronous generators
demand reactive power from the grid.
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Another alternative to the popular squirrel-cage asynchronous generator is the so-
called slip control method, which adjusts the slip continuously.

In this case, a wound rotor is connected to some variable resistors through slip
rings.

By changing the electrical resistance of the rotor, small changes in the rotational
speed variation of about 10% above the synchronous speed can be compensated for
without varying the generator output frequency.
47
Many options have been developed to achieve some degree of speed
variation:

(1) dual-speed generators with pole switching (the use of a lower speed in
low wind conditions improves performance and reduces noise emissions);

(2) variable-resistance asynchronous generators for a low range of variable
speed;

(3) doubly fed induction generators (DFIGs) for a moderate range of variable
speed; and finally,

(4) direct-drive multipole synchronous generator systems and

(5) hybrid systems (combination of multipole generators with small
gearboxes), both for a wide range of variable speed.
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Especially dominant in new markets is the DFIG, also called the wound rotor
induction generator. In this machine, the stator windings are directly connected to
the grid, while a frequency converter interfaces between the standard wound rotor
and the grid.

The stator winding connection carries most of the power production, although the
frequency converter may carry up to a third of the total power, depending on the
operating mode.


This configuration allows the machine to control the slip in the generator, and
thus the rotor speed can vary moderately, achieving better aerodynamic
efficiency. Furthermore, as the converter controls the rotor voltage magnitude and
phase angle, partial control of active and reactive power is also possible.
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Finally, another approach, which will probably dominate in offshore
applications, is the multipole synchronous generator connected to the grid
through a power electronic converter that handles the full power production.

This concept, also called the direct-drive machine, takes advantage of the
wide speed range allowed by the full-scale frequency converter. The
generator can operate at any rotational speed, allowing operation to track the
optimal speed for each wind condition.


Among the main advantages of this approach are low maintenance costs and
high reliability due to omission of the gearbox, improved aerodynamic
efficiency, and the ability to assist grid voltage control.
50
Wind turbine control
To obtain maximum power from varying wind
speed and minimizing the rating of the wind
converter a better control strategy is needed.
At rated wind speed, real power from the wind
generator is regulated to capture maximum energy
from varying wind speed.
Available maximum power is

: air density
R :blade radius
:angular speed of the wind turbine
:maximum power coefficient
: optimal tip speed ratio


51

Rated power Pr of the wind turbine (actual power supplied to grid at wind speed
greater than Vr) separates the graph into two main areas. Below rated power, the WT
produces only a fraction of its total design power, & therefore an optimization control
strategy needs to be performed. Conversely, above rated power, a limitation control
strategy is required.
Power curve of a WT & control zones.
A generic qualitative power curve for a variable-speed pitch-
controlled wind turbine
52
For passive-stall-controlled wind turbines, in which the rotor blades
are fixed to the hub at a specific angle, the generator reaction torque
regulates rotor speed below rated operation to maximize energy
capture.


Above a specific wind speed, the geometry of the rotor induces
stall. In this manner, the power delivered by the rotor is limited in
high wind conditions thanks to a particular design of the blades that
provokes loss of efficiency.
53
In pitch control, the power delivered by the rotor is regulated either by pitching
the blades toward the wind to maximize energy capture or by pitching to feather
to discard the excess power and ensure that the mechanical limitations are not
exceeded. At rated operation, the aim is to maintain power and rotor speed at their
rated value.


To achieve this, the torque is held constant and the pitch is continually changed
following the demands of a closed-loop rotor speed controller that optimizes
energy capture and follows wind speed variations.


In contrast, below rated operation there is no pitch control; the blade is set to a
fine pitch position to yield higher power capture values while the generator torque
itself regulates the rotor speed.
54
Active stall control is a combination of stall and pitch control. It offers the same
regulation possibilities as the pitch-regulated turbine but uses the stall properties of
the blades.

Above rated operation, the control system pitches the blades to induce stall instead
of feathering.


In this technique, the blades are rotated only by small amounts and less frequently
than for pitch control.
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Control Prospective:


Modeling, identification and simulation
Classical proportional integral- derivative control (PID)
Feedforward control (FF),
Model-based predictive control (MPC)
Adaptive control (AC)
Gain-scheduled control (GS),
Cascade control (CC),
Internal model control (IMC),
Time delay compensation (TDC),
Optimal control (LQG),
Nonlinear control (NC),
Robust control (RC),
Fuzzy logic control (FLC),
Neural network control (NNC) .



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Power systems are fundamentally reliant on control, communications, and
computation for ensuring stable, reliable, efficient operations.

Generators rely on governors and automatic voltage regulators (AVRs) to counter
the effects of disturbances that continually buffet power systems, and many would
quickly lose synchronism without the damping provided by power system
stabilizers (PSSs).

Flexible AC transmission system (FACTS) devices, such as static var compensators
(SVCs) and high-voltage DC(HVDC) schemes, rely on feedback control to
enhance system stability.

At a higher level, energy management systems (EMSs) use supervisory control and
data acquisition (SCADA) to collect data from expansive power systems and
sophisticated analysis tools to establish secure, economic operating conditions.
Automatic generation control (AGC) is a distributed closed-loop control scheme of
continental proportions that optimally reschedules generator power setpoints to
maintain frequency and tie-line flows at their specified values.
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Overview of Smart Grid
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59
Power System Scenario Based on Smart-Grid
Technologies

o RESs cannot directly replace the existing electric energy grid technologies. The latter are
far too well established to abandon, while the new technologies are not sufficiently
developed to meet the total energy demand. Therefore, it is sensible to gradually infuse
renewable energy sources into existing grids and transform the system over time.

o A smart grid is modelled by two concentric circlesthe outer circle represents energy
flow and the inner circle models information flow over communication networks.
Different approaches to the management of energy flow in active grids integrating
distributed power generation have been proposed . One of the most interesting ideas
employs energy hubs to manage multiple energy carriers(e.g, electricity, natural gas, and
district heating) .Within each hub are energy converters that transform part of the energy
flow into another form of energy.

o Figure 2 is a possible scenario solely for the management of electrical energy flow, based
on the use of power electronic nodes that can embedded in a more vast scenario of energy
management for multiple energy carriers.

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Smart grid concepts encompass a wide range of technologies
and applications. We describe a few below that are currently in
practice with the caveat that, at this early stage in the
development of smart grids, the role of control, especially
advanced control, is limited:
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Conventional grid to smart grid

Advanced components
Power Electronic technologies
Advanced distributed generation, storage and transmission
Integrated two way communication
Sensing and measurement
Advanced control methods
Improved interfaces and decision support






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RES Integration with Grid
65
RES Integration with Grid
66
PV integration with grid
67
Wind integration
68
Partial scale converter
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Vehicle to grid
70
Storage technologies
Pumped hydro
Battery systems
Compressed air
Flywheels
Capacitor banks
Hydrogen fuel cell
SMES
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Open to developments
Identify congested systems in Indian grid
Place PMU devices
Improve it by FACTS
Control and measuring technologies
Renewable power sources interconnection with grid in
Urban and Rural areas
Tie up with EV auto industries
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Open to developments
Plug and play device
Renewable sources, V2G and storage devices
Bidirectional converters
Islanding conditions
Communication
Smart meter

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Hybrid Energy System
Topologies
Hybrid system is the combination of
Photovoltaic System
Wind Turbine
Battery
Common dc bus
Power electronic converters
Grid interface inverter
Hybrid System Study
Fig1.1
Contd.
Fig.1.1 shows the hybrid PV-Wind energy conversion system (with
battery storage) proposed in this thesis as a small-scale grid-connected
system.
The main energy sources for the system are wind and PV generators,
while the battery bank works as an energy storage backup source.
The utility grid works as a secondary backup supply in this system.
The system is intended to be for residential applications, which may be
building demand or a water pumping system with domestic demand.
The research proposes a power conditioning system(pcs)which controls
such a small scale system.
Contd.
The small-scale system requires simple controllers
and circuits that are easy to implement, and this is
the core objective of this study. The present study
always considers this to reduce the cost and size of
the controllers and the system.
The system components could be connected in
several ways, depending on the proposed power
electronics topology. One option is to connect the
sources with the load and the grid via an ac bus bar,
using an inverter for every source. This will increase
the redundancy of the system, as every source can
work independently from the other sources.

Contd.
However, this will increase the overall
system cost. Another option, which is
proposed in this study, is to connect the
sources to a dc bus bar.
Subsequently, an inverter will be used to
supply the load and connect to the grid. This
method is less costly and easier to control for
the standalone mode of operation.
The sub-system components, power
electronics, and control units are outlined in
the following sub-sections.

Configuration of Hybrid
power & Control System
System Description
The PV system consists of a PV array and a boost
converter to increase the array voltage.
The wind system consists of ac-dc converter for
regulating power of the wind generator.
The battery energy storage systems mitigates power
fluctuations of solar and wind system or regulates the
power description of the grid.
The grid interface inverter converts the dc power of
hybrid system in the form of ac power.
Control Configuration
The control system of the hybrid generation is divided into
two types:
a) Local Controller: It includes wind turbine controller, PV
array controller, battery controller and grid inverter
controller which are built under power conditioning
systems.
b) Supervisory controller: It is the combination of a
personal computer for remote control, its software and
communication network with local controllers. It
monitors the entire hybrid system.
Supervisory control
strategies
Supervisory-control strategies of a grid-connected hybrid system.
Description
A supervisory-control system monitors parameter of the
local controllers and transfers control directions to them
according to the mode selected by an operator.
Supervisory-control strategies in three possible modes of
operation are as follows:
1) Mode I:The hybrid system transfers as much power
into the grid as the PV array and the wind-turbine can
generate. Solar irradiance and wind speed have
complementary profiles. For the most efficient
operation, the wind turbine and PV array are controlled
at all times to produce the maximum power under the
given weather conditions. Battery remains off in this
mode.
Contd.
2)Mode II-Dispatch operation: The supervisory control sets
the desired power injection to the grid. Battery is used to
compensate power mismatch between generation of PV
array and wind turbine and the dispatched amount.Power
fluctuations are unavoidable in wind and solar system, and
power dispatch command can be continuously changed by
the system operator.
3)Mode III-averaging operation: The purpose of this mode is
to smooth the power fluctuation of the renewable energy
sources and transfer more stable power into the grid. This
improves the quality of power delivered to the grid. A
simple technique using a low-pass filter was introduced.
Contd.
This technique is simple but effective in mitigating power
fluctuation. Use of battery is necessary for balancing the
power production and injection, and its control is the
same as that in mode II. The wind and PV systems are
still under the maximum power control.

Configuration of the
hybrid PCS and its
local control
Description
The wind controller consists of a wind-turbine speed
controller and a d-q-frame-based current controller. The upper
level controller regulates the active and reactive power of the
wind generator, and outputs the d and q-axis current
commands at which the lower level current controller
regulates the wind-generator current.
The PV converter regulates the array voltage at the
reference voltage commanded by the maximum power
point tracking (MPPT) controller and boosts it to the level of
common dc voltage.
In a battery-charging mode, the current flows from the dc
bus to the battery, and in a discharging mode, the current
flows in the opposite direction. Therefore, the BESS converter
should be a type of a buckbooster, which may operate in
buck mode for battery charging and in boost mode for battery
discharging.
PV System
It consists of a PV array and a step up dc-dc
converter for boosting the array voltage to a higher
level of common dc voltage and then a dc-ac
converter connected to the grid.
Demand of PV technology has grown due to
decrease in price, increase in efficiency of solar cells,
manufacturing technology improvements.
Wind System
It is composed of a wind blade, direct drive
generator and an ac-dc converter for regulating
power of the wind generator.
Wind turbines capture power from wind by means
of aerodynamically designed blades and convert it
into rotating mechanical power.
Now a days, the Horizontal axis wind
turbine(HAWT)having three blades are used
mostly.
Wind turbine technology
Types of wind turbine technology:
Variable speed wind turbines
Current wind power technology:
Two types:
Variable speed concept utilizing doubly fed induction
generator(DFIG)
Variable speed concept utilizing full power converter
Grid connection standards for wind farms
Two types:
Voltage fault ride through capability of wind turbines
Power quality requirements for grid connected wind turbines
Variable speed wind
turbines
It depends on wind speed in order to optimize
the energy captured from wind.
Annual energy captured is about 5% greater
than the fixed speed technology and the active
and reactive power generated can be controlled
easily.
Rapid power fluctuations are scarce because the
rotor acts as a flywheel.
Grid voltage can be controlled as the reactive
power generation can be varied.

Current wind power
technology
a) Variable speed concept utilizing doubly fed
induction generator(DFIG):
The converter feeds the rotor winding while the
stator winding is connected directly to the grid.
By decoupling mechanical and electrical
frequencies we can vary the electrical rotor
frequency.
The converter cannot operate in full range as the
converter is smaller as compared to the rated
power of the machine and due to small size
losses are lower.
Contd.
The figure below includes two three phase ac-dc
converters linked by a dc capacitor battery.
It helps in vector control of the active and reactive
powers of the machine and helps in minimizing the
harmonic content injected into the grid by the power
converter.


Fig. DFIG with back to back power converters
Contd.
Turbines ranging from 600KW to 2.75MW have now
been equipped with a system which allows transient rotor
speed to increase up to 10% of the nominal value.
In this case, the variable speed conditions are achieved
by dissipating the energy within a resistor placed in the
rotor as shown below:



Contd.
b)Variable speed concept utilizing full power
converter:
In this method, the generator is completely
decoupled from the grid.
The energy from the generator is rectified to a dc
link and then it is converted to a suitable ac energy
for the grid.
The benefits of removing the gear box are reduced
losses, lower costs and increased reliability.


Contd.







The figure shows full power converter for a
wind turbine in which the machine side three
phase converter works as a driver controlling the
torque generator using a vector control strategy.
Double three phase
VSI
Contd.

The grid side three phase converter permits
wind energy transfer into the grid and enables to
control the amount of active and reactive powers
delivered to the grid.
It also helps in minimizing total harmonic
distortion as low as possible helping in
improving the quality of power injected into the
grid.
Grid connected
standards for wind
farms
a) Voltage fault ride through capability of wind
turbines
To enable a large scale application of the wind
energy without compromising the power system
stability, the turbine should stay connected and
contribute to the grid.
When the wind capacity increases, it may give
rise to a disturbance such as voltage dip.
Contd.
Several utilities have introduced special grid connection
codes for wind farm developers, covering reactive power
control, frequency response and fault ride in places
where wind turbines provide a significant part of the total
power.
Although the fault ride varies, the German Transmission
and Distribution Utility(E.ON)regulation is likely to set
the standard.
This standard sets the wind turbine should remain stable
and connected during the fault while voltage at a point of
connection drops to 15% for a period of 150ms as shown
in the figure.
Contd.












When the grid voltage drops below the curve,
the turbine is allowed to disconnect from the
grid. When the voltage is in shaded area, the
turbine supplies reactive power to the grid.

Contd.
b)Power quality requirements for grid connected
wind turbines:
Wind turbines not only produce harmonics, they
also produce interharmonics i.e. harmonics that
are not a multiple of 50Hz.
Since the switching frequency of the inverter is
not constant but varies, the harmonics will vary.
Conversion from Wind
power to Electric power
Wind turbine control
To obtain maximum power from varying wind
speed and minimizing the rating of the wind
converter a better control strategy is needed.
At rated wind speed, real power from the wind
generator is regulated to capture maximum energy
from varying wind speed.
Available maximum power is

: air density
R :blade radius
:angular speed of the wind turbine
:maximum power coefficient
: optimal tip speed ratio


MPPT Algorithms
A wind turbine has a maximum level of power
which can be extracted from the wind which is
related to the Betz limit(59% efficiency).
The power coefficient value depends on the
specific wind turbine shape, the wind velocity, the
turbine rotor speed, and the turbines blade pitch.
The curve depicting this coefficient( )with rotor
speed has only one maximum point.
Contd.
Therefore, the main objective of the MPPT
process is to adjust the wind turbine to work at
the maximum point of that curve.
The turbine power can be calculated from
Equation (1) as a function of wind velocity and
the efficiency coefficient ( ) which is a
function of the tip speed ratio (TSR) and pitch
angle .
Contd.


(1)
TSR is calculated from Equation(2)
(2)
: air density
R :blade radius
:angular speed of the wind turbine
A:swept area
:optimal tip ratio
:wind speed

Contd.
Due to the nonlinear characteristics of the wind
generator and the continuous rapid change in wind
velocity (wind gusts), MPPT is a challenging issue
for wind power generators.
The MPPT for wind generator can be divided into
aerodynamic control and power electronics control.
Aerodynamic control is either based on the pitch
method or the stall method. The purpose of pitch
or stall control methods is to track the MPPs of wind
turbines with changing blades pitch angle or the
attack angle of wind on the blades respectively.
Contd.
As the size of the turbine increases, the
aerodynamic control becomes more and more
complex and costly.
The usage of power electronic converters allows
for variable speed operation of the wind turbine
and for enhanced maximum power extraction,
supplying the load with improved quality of
power.
High Wind Velocity
Control
Control at high wind velocities can also be
divided into aerodynamic and power
electronics-based or simply electrically-based
methods.
a) Aerodynamic High Wind Velocity Control:
In a large horizontal axis wind turbine
(HAWT), electrical control is usually used for
maximum power point tracking (MPPT) and
aerodynamic control is used at high wind
velocities to limit the turbine power and
rotational speed.
Contd.
b) Electrically Based High Wind Velocity Control:
Constant speed soft stalling has been proposed for
vertical axis turbines to regulate the rotor speed or
the output dc side voltage of the generator rectifier.
The drawback is that the power output is still greater
than rated power.
The figure below depicts that plots the output
power against the rotor speed in such a scheme;
MPPT is normally applied at low wind
velocities, while at high wind velocities the
rotor speed is kept constant.

Contd.
Fig.1.2 Power-rotor speed curve in constant speed soft stalling
Future trends in wind
power technology
To yield more energy it is better to install wind
turbine near sea where their is great wind
resources.
Wind turbine installed at offshore have slightly
more favorable energy balance than onshore
turbines, depending on the local wind conditions.
Wind turbine requires 50% more energy than a
turbine placed on a near by onshore site.

A Central Coordinating Control system is used for controlling
energy flow between sources, storage devices & load.
As in DGS, source system & controller both are non-linear in
nature, Hybrid Control Techniques are necessary.
This approach are useful for power system control,
identification, optimization, stability, reliability and security.
Micro grid is special DGS, which is continuously small, low
voltage and smart grid energy systems.
Smart grid is a type of Micro grid, with advanced
technologies to electric grid operations & design.
Smart grid operate in grid-connected mode & islanding mode.
System may become unstable during the transition between
above two modes.
Hence, three-level Hiearchical control & management system
(with primary, secondary & tertiary control) system can be
used.

121
Conclusions
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Aerospace control
09-05-2014 Prof. Bidyadhar Subudhi
123
AEROSPACE CONTROL
Advanced control technology played
a fundamental role in putting the
first man on the moon
First control technology developed during the Apollo program was
a catalyst for safer and more efficient aircraft.
The success of the Apollo program also paved the way for
embedded software, online reconfiguration software, concurrent
control design and software engineering processes, man-machine
interfaces, and digital fly-by-wire (DFBW) technologies.

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For military aircraft, the deployment of DFBW control systems
allowed the development of highly maneuverable fighter aircraft
and the improvement of their carefree handling performance and
combat survivability by preventing stalling, spinning, and actuator
hydraulic failures.
DFBW control systems are commonly implemented in high-
performance jet fighters and aboard commercial airliners.
In the late 1960s, engineers at NASA Flight Research Center (now
NASA Dryden) proposed replacing bulky mechanical flight-control
systems on aircraft.
CONTD...
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CONTD...
control technology has continued to play an important role in the
successful deployment of more powerful satcoms featuring large
flexible deployable antenna and solar arrays.
The primary benefits were a reduction of the airframe weight
through the use of smaller, lighter aerodynamic control surfaces and
increased aircraft safety and reliability.
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126
CONTD...
Fig 1. Common and specific control-relevant requirements for aeronautics and
space
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127
CONTD...
The exploitation of future space systems for civil, commercial,
scientific, and space exploration also gives rise to a set of
challenges and opportunities in the area of control. With the rapid
advances in computing, communications, and sensing technology,
three main categories of guidance, navigation, and control (GNC)
systems can be defined:

Low-end (recurring) GNC systems
High-end GNC systems
Safety-critical GNC systems

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Fig 2. Examples of enabling control technologies for each GNC system class
CONTD...
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129
OPPORTUNITIES FOR RESEARCH
Development of new
worst-case analysis
techniques for hybrid
and nonlinear systems
Enhancement of
statistical approaches
Improvement of
transparent robust
control design methods
Development of
trouble-shooting
control techniques
Smart interpretation
and presentation of
results
Sensor fusion
On-line trajectory and
optimal path planning
On-line system
identification
Robust fault detection,
diagnosis and prognosis
Decision making
Adaptive reconfiguration
control
On-line planning and
executive decision
making
Numerical modeling of
complex multisystems
and their validation
Information
transmission over
networks
Decentralized control
and decision making
Subliminal control
4D trajectory planning
Self-separation
Conflict detection and
resolution
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Control in Process Industry
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CONTROL IN PROCESS INDUSTRY
The goal of process control is to bring about and maintain the
conditions of a process at desired or optimal values.
Process control technologies include physical and empirical
modeling, computer simulation and optimization, automation
hardware and software (such as actuators, measuring instruments,
implementation platforms, plant communication infrastructure),
control structure design, advanced control strategies and related
technologies such as process monitoring/diagnosis, and
planning/scheduling solutions.
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.
Specific industries include
Biological/biochemical/bio-fuels enterprises
Cement plants
Chemical plants
Electrochemical
Glass/ceramics industry
Heating
Ventilation
Air conditioning (HVAC)
Minerals and metals
Petrochemical/refining
Pharmaceuticals
Power generation
Pulp and paper
Water systems
CONTD...
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Fig 3. An analysis of
measures for reducing
energy and emissions in
refineries. Advanced
optimization, control, and
monitoring technologies
are crucial in several cases.
CONTD...
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134
OPPORTUNITIES FOR RESEARCH
The application challenges provide excellent opportunities for
research. Some of these research needs are discussed below.

Generating Good Process Models at Low Cost
Controller Design for Models Described by Nonlinear
Partial Differential Equations (PDEs) and Integro Partial
Differential Algebraic Equations (IPDAEs)
Control Structure Adaptation
New Sensing Technologies
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Methodologies, including algorithms, to develop control-relevant
process models at low cost would open up application
opportunities that are currently not cost-effective for advanced
control.
Determining the structure of a control strategy is an art today and
needs to be developed to a science; rigorous control structure
adaptation techniques are also needed.
With increasing integration of process plants and their upstream
and downstream connections, new research opportunities have
emerged in wrapping closed-loop optimization and control loops
around enterprises and supply chains.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR RESEARCH
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136
LEVEL CONTROL OF COUPLED TANK SYSTEM
(a) (b)

Fig 4. (a) Schematic diagram of Coupled Tank System (b) Experimental setup
Coupling probe
Tank 1
Tank 2
Tank 3
Tank 4
Level Sensor
Valve
Pump 1
Pump 2
Tank 5
Outlet Area
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CONTD...
The main objectives of the coupled tank system is to maintain the
desired liquid level in Tanks.
The control problem challenges with this system are:
Nonlinear dynamics
Non-minimum phase system
An internal model controller has been implemented to achieve the
desired requirements.
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CONTD...
The control structure of IMC controller is:
Fig 5. Generalized IMC structure
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139
0 50 100 150 200 250
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
Time(sec)
L
e
v
e
l
Experimental Response PI using (IMC) approach for Tank-1


Experimental
Desired
CONTD...
Fig 6. Experimental Response
of Model based Controller
algorithm for Tank 1
Fig 7. Experimental Response
of Model based Controller
algorithm for Tank 2
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
Time(sec)
L
e
v
e
l
Experimental Response PI using (IMC approach) for Tank2


Experimental
Desired
09-05-2014 Prof. Bidyadhar Subudhi
Automotive Control
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AUTOMOTIVE CONTROL
Automotive industry has become one of the foremost industry
sectors in terms of the importance accorded to advanced control
technology.
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CONTD...
The broad objective of automotive-related fatalities aimed at
assessing the socioeconomic effects of intelligent vehicle safety
systems and their impact on traffic, safety, and efficiency, focusing
on different technologies such as:
Electronic Stability Control (ESC)
Full Speed Range ACC (FSR)
Emergency Braking (EBR)
Pre-Crash Protection of Vulnerable Road Users (PCV)
Lane Change Assistant (Warning) (LCA)
Lane Keeping Support (LKS)
Night Vision Warn (NIW)
Driver Drowsiness Monitoring and Warning (DDM)
eCall (one-way communication) (ECA)
Intersection Safety (INS)
Wireless Local Danger Warning (WLD)
Speed Alert (SPE)
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CONTD...
Fig 8. Integration of control algorithm in automobile through AUTOSAR
software architecture
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144
Powertrain architectures with multiple power sources are becoming
increasingly popular; these will require sophisticated coordinated
control approaches to manage the heterogeneous power sources.
Correct estimation of the state of charge of a battery is one of the
most difficult and important research needs in battery management
systems for electric and hybrid-electric vehicles.
Motorbikes and tilting vehicles represent an emerging and exciting
opportunity for control technology, especially for active yaw-roll
control.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR RESEARCH
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145
CONTROL IN ROBOTICS
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146
CONTD...
In the current era, the fundamental problems in robotics have
motivated the development of new control theory.
Point-to-point control enabled simple tasks such as materials
transfer and spot welding.
Continuous-path tracking enabled more complex tasks such as arc
welding and spray painting.
The complex, interconnected nonlinear dynamics of robots
motivated the development of new theoretical results in nonlinear,
robust, and adaptive control, which in turn enabled more
sophisticated applications.
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CONTD...
Some of the robots, which are playing an important role in society
listed below:
Mobile robots
Underwater and flying robots
Robot networks
Surgical robots etc.
Robot manipulators have become a standard control application,
and the synergies were widely recognized and exploited in research.
The earlier research on computed torque and inverse dynamics
control has been applied to numerous practical problems within and
outside of robotics.
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A state-of-the-art teleoperated robot is the Da Vinci surgical system
from Intuitive Surgical, which integrates advances in
micromanipulators, miniature cameras, and a master-slave control
system to enable a surgeon to operate on a patient via a console with
a 3-D video feed and foot and hand controls.
CONTD...
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RESEARCH CHALLANGES
Underactuated robots have fewer control inputs than degrees of
freedom and are a natural progression from flexible-joint and
flexible-link robots.
Visual Servo Control and Force Control predates the availability
of low-cost, high-quality digital cameras and advances in
computational platforms enabling real-time processing of digital
video signals.
Locomotion: The dynamics and control of bipedal locomotion is
also useful for the development of prosthetic and orthotic devices to
aid humans with disabilities or missing limbs.
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CONTD
Multi-Agent Systems and Networked Control: Networked control
systems and multi-agent systems are important recent application areas
for robotics synchronization, coordination, cooperative manipulation,
flocking, and swarming combine graph theoretic methods with
nonlinear control.
Fig 9. Coordinated robots
competing in the soccer
game
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RECOMMENDATIONS FOR RESEARCH
Approaches integrating position-based and image-based methods
represent a promising research direction for solving the visual servo
control problem.
Control advances are needed for making legged robot locomotion
practical; the problem is characterized by hybrid nonlinear
dynamics, unilateral constraints, and underactuation.
With the increasing interest in multivehicle roboticsunder/in sea,
on land, and in the airmulti-agent and networked control systems
have become, and will continue to be, a key research area.
09-05-2014 Prof. Bidyadhar Subudhi
Control of
Autonomous Underwater
Vehicles
AUV STRUCTURE
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153
, x u
, z w
, y v
Surge
Heave
Sway
, p |
roll
, r yaw
pitch
, q u
{ } I
{ } B
1
[ , , ] x y z q =
2
[ , , ] q | u =
1
[ , , ] u v w v =
2
[ , , ] p q r v =
& : linear and angular motion w.r.t Earth Fixed Frame.
& : linear and angular velocity w.r.t Body Fixed Frame.
1
q
2
q
1
v
2
v
i
x
i
z
i
y
AUV KINEMATICS
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The Transformation relates the Earth-Fixed Frame and Body-Fixed
Frame.
Transformation
Matrix
1 2
2 2
( )
( )
x u
y J v
z w
p
J q
r
q
|
u q

( (
( (
=
( (
( (

(
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
(


AUV KINEMATICS
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155
The dynamics of AUV can be derived by applying Newton- Euler
formulation on Lagrangian mechanics ,and its vectorial
representation is given by


( )
RB RB RB
M C v v v t + =
where,
: Mass Matrix
: Coriolis and Centripetal Matrix
:Body-fixed linear and angular velocity vector
:External Force and Moment vector
RB
M
RB
C
| |
, , , , , u v w p q r v =
| |
, , , , ,
RB
X Y Z K M N t =
AUV DYNAMICS
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Hydrostatic Force
AUV experiences force and moment due to combined effect of weight
and buoyancy.
Added Mass
Added mass is a measure of the mass of the moving water when the
vehicle accelerates.
Propeller Thrust
Propeller as a source of constant thrust and torque
Lift Force
The vehicle moving through the water at an angle of attack, causing flow
separation and a subsequent drop in pressure along the aft, upper section
of the vehicle hull.
Drag Force
Skin friction principal component.
AUV includes pockets and antenna which hinders the flow of fluid
AUV DYNAMICS: External Forces and Moments
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157
Added Mass
Hydrostatic Force
Lift Force
Drag Force
Propeller Thrust
RB
t
, , , , ,
HS HS HS HS HS HS
X Y Z K M N
, , , ,
u v w p w
X Y Z K M
, ,
uv ur uu r
Y Y Y
o
, , ,
ww qq uu vv
M M X Y
, ,
u r s
T o o
Hydrostatic Force:
Added Mass:
Propeller Thrust:
Lift Force:
Drag Force
, , , , ,
HS HS HS HS HS HS
X Y Z K M N
, , , , , , , , ,
u v w p w r q q v r
X Y Z K M Y Z M N N
u
T
, ,
s r r
uu uu uu
Z Y N
o o o
, , ,
ww qq uu vv
M M X Y
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AUV DYNAMICS: External Forces and Moments
2 2
( ) ( ) ( )
g g g
m u vr wq x q r y pq r z pr q X ( + + + + + =

2 2
( ) ( ) ( )
g g g
m v wp ur y p r z qr p x pq r Y ( + + + + + =

2 2
( ) ( ) ( )
g g g
m w uq vp z q p x pr q y qr p Z ( + + + + + =

2 2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
x z y xz yz xy g g
I p I I qr r pq I r q I pr q I m y w uq vp z v wp ur K ( + + + + + + + =

2 2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
y x z xy zx yz g g
I q I I pr p qr I p r I qp r I m z u vr wq x w uq vp M ( + + + + + + + =

2 2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
z y x yz xy zx g g
I r I I pq q rp I q p I rq p I m x v wp ur y u vr wq N ( + + + + + + + =

Surge Equation of Motion
Sway Equation of Motion
Heave Equation of Motion
Roll Equation of Motion
Pitch Equation of Motion
Yaw Equation of Motion
1
:
u
v
w
v
(
(
=
(
(

Linear Velocities
2
:
p
q
r
v
(
(
=
(
(

Angular Velocities
:
x xy xz
yx y yz
zx zy z
I I I
I I I
I I I
(
(

(
(


Inertia of AUV
: m
Mass of AUV
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AUV DYNAMICS: Expanded Equation
2
2
r
s
HS u wq qq vr rr prop u u
HS v r ur wp pq uv uu r v v r r
HS w q uq vp rp uw uu s ww q q
HS p prop p p
H
X X X u u X u X wq X qq X vr X rr X
Y Y Y v v Y r r Y v Y r Y ur Y wp Y pq Y uv Y u
Z Z Z w w Z q q Z w Z q Z uq Z vp Z rp Z uw Z u
K K K p p K p K
M M
o
o
o
o
= + + + + + + +
= + + + + + + + + +
= + + + + + + + + +
= + + +
=
2
2
s
r
S w q uq vp rp uw uu s ww q q
HS v r ur wp pq uv uu v v r r
M w w M q q M w M q M uq M vp M rp M uw M u
N N N v v N r r N v N r N ur N wp N pq N uv N u r
o
o
o
o
+ + + + + + + + +
= + + + + + + + + +
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AUV DYNAMICS: External Components
Simulations are performed using MATLAB for verifying the performance of
backstepping control law for steering the AUV to desired Serret-Frenet frame path.

For the above simulations, AUV parameters of INFANTE AUV is chosen as shown in
Table.1. The parameters for updating the controller gains are given in Table.2. The
initial conditions for simulation are taken as
| |
1 2 3
[s, x, y, , u, v, r, k , k , k 0, 0, 0, 0, 0.5, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0]. =
Table1: INFANTE AUV Hydrodynamic parameter
Table2: Controller gain parameters
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SIMULATION RESULTS: Parameters
The proposed controller performed well by tracking
the desired circular path.

Initial position=(0,0)
Initial orientation=0;
while following the desired path the
angular orientation uniformly
decreases because the AUV follow
the path in clockwise direction.
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SIMULATION RESULTS
The following figure shows the error between the
Serret-Frenet frame and AUV actual position.
The initial position of AUV is at (0,0) and initial
position of S-F frame is (0,100). As time passes
AUV approaches to the desired path so error
gradually decreases to zero.
Initially the error between AUV actual position and
S-F frame is more so the update rate of S-F frame
reduces in other words the S-F frame waits for the
AUV. As AUV actual position closer to the S-F
frame its update rate becomes uniform.
Uniform Update
Rate
Low Update
Rate
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SIMULATION RESULTS: Error between Actual & Desired
For simulation the desired surge velocity
assigned is 1m/sec while following the path.
And as shown the initial velocity assigned
is 0.5m/sec
The controller gains adapt according to the
corresponding error. Initially the gain K2 is
more because the initial surge velocity is
much lesser than desired value, so the gain
corresponding to this error is more.
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SIMULATION RESULTS: Forward Velocity and Gain
The variation of thruster force is shown in
the figure. After some time interval the
controller generates constant thruster force
for the AUV motion.
The rudder angle variation while traversing
the path is shown in figure. As the path is a
circular path so after approaching the path
the controller generates the constant rudder
angle.
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SIMULATION RESULTS: Control Inputs
09-05-2014 Prof. Bidyadhar Subudhi
Control in Biological System
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167
CONTROL IN BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS
The field of control and systems has been connected to biological
systems and biotechnology for many decades.
The application of control is categorized in 3 types biological
systems:
Red biotechnology (the medical field of use)
Blue biotechnology (aquatic use of biological technology)
White biotechnology (industrial applications)
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The emphasis in this section is on medical applications of control
systems technology, which is very different from other areas in this
study for multiple reasons:
It is much less mature.
It has far wider impact on human life.
It is much less established.
CONTD
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169
The field of biomedical control systems is relatively young
compared to aerospace, automotive, and the chemical process
fields. Nevertheless, some noteworthy recent developments have
emerged in two key application areas: cardiovascular systems and
endocrinology.
The advanced control theory and process modeling have recently
been applied to the following devices:

Cardiac Assist Devices
IVAC Titrator (regulation of blood pressure)
Target-controlled infusion (Anesthesia Delivery)
Implantable cardioverter defibrillator (ICD)
Intracardiac Electrogram (IEGM)
Oxygen saturation monitor
APPLICATION
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170
Fig 10. Components and communication protocols for the artificial pancreas
EXAMPLE
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Success in the development of the artificial pancreas, and of other
closed-loop biomedical devices, will be contingent on the
development of robust, verifiable advanced control algorithms.
Algorithms for controlled drug delivery are an exciting research
opportunity; advances are needed to characterize and to accommodate
the considerable intrapatient as well as interpatient variability that
exists in disease (and healthy) populations.
Biological control and diagnostic applications require modeling and
system identification approaches that integrate structure
determination, parameter estimation, and model verification and
human understandability of generated models is an important
criterion.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR RESEARCH
09-05-2014 Prof. Bidyadhar Subudhi
Control of
Renewable Energy Sources &
Smart Grid
Energy security:
Availability of natural resources
Fuel supply resources for the future
Economic growth:
Accommodation of the developing nations needs
Growth of potential outputs
Environmental effects:
Global warming
Emission control
Electricity system reliability:
Assurance of integrity of electric power infrastructure
Power quality
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MAJOR CHALLENGES IN ENERGY
Industrialization and economic development have historically been
associated with mans ability to harness natural energy resources.
S.
No.
Century Industrial Revolution Fuels used Issues
1. 18
th
First revolution Coal Limited & pollution
2. 19
th
Second revolution Petroleum Limited & pollution
3. 20
th
Third revolution Nuclear Safety & political
4. 21
st
Modern revolution Renewable Challenge to sustained
industrialization.
Renewable energy sources, Energy storage system, Information and
communication technology is the key to sustained industrialization.
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INDUSTRIALIZATION AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
Renewable energy is generally defined as
energy that comes from resources which
are continually replenished on a human
timescale such as sunlight, wind, rain,
tides, waves and geothermal heat
Mostly used Renewable Energy Sources

Hydroelectric
Photovoltaic (PV)
Wind
Emerging renewable technologies

Wave Energy conversion
Tidal energy conversion
Biomass energy conversion
the combination of renewable
energy sources and energy storage
systems can fulfil the energy need of
entire world !
Fig. 11: Types of RES
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RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES
Efficiency
Reliability
Cost of the energy conversion
Safe connection to the electric grid
Capability to manage microgrids
Efficient energy storage and transmission
Development of advanced control and monitoring algorithms
Networking of the sources and/or consumers
availability of good tools for simulations and experiments
Focus Theme
The synergies between the power electronics, control and communication fields.
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ASPECTS OF RESs
Fig. 12. PV connected to load
and storage
Output Power of PV depends upon
1. Irradiance
2. Temperature
Increasing in irradiance improves
output current from PV
Increase in temperature reduces
voltage of PV panel

Fig. 13. PV characteristics
under different temperatures
and irradiance level
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PV ENERGY CONVERSION
Output Power of Wind Turbine
depends upon

1. Wind speed
2. Humidity
Fig. 15. Wind Turbine characteristics
Fig. 14. Wind Energy conversion system
Fig. 16. Operating regions of WES
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WIND ENERGY CONVERSION



Fig. 17. Control functions of PV or wind turbine systems. TSO is the transmission system operator.
Power Converters
Electric Machines
Energy Storage
1.
2.
3.
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TECHNOLOGY FOR RES

1) In PV systems:
It helps to gather energy in series and parallel combinations of
modules to achieve sufficient voltage and current.
MPPT controllers, dc-dc converters, inverters

2) In wind system:
Wind turbines operate most efficiently when the ratio of the
blade tip speed to wind speed is maintained. Therefore, the
maximum wind energy is transferred by allowing the turbine to
run at variable speed.
MPPT controllers, ac-dc converter, inverters

3) In Transmission Systems:
Present AC transmission requires power conditioners and
active filters, reactive power controllers.
DC transmission system is being revived as an alternative
transmission.
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I. POWER CONVERTERS
To manage limited speed
variations.

To control power factor.

Ability to accommodate
larger wind variations


Electric machine is used for generating power as well as storing energy, however its
main functions are
Types of wind turbine technology:

1. Constant speed wind turbine generators
Squirrel cage induction generator (SCIG)
2. Variable speed wind turbines Generator
Doubly fed induction generator(DFIG)
Permanent magnet synchronous generator(PMSG)


Fig. 18. Electric machines in the grid at generation side.
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II. ELECTRIC MACHINES
Energy sources to improve robustness against intermittent outages.
Remote off-grid installations.




1) Batteries:
Electrical to chemical energy
Environmental impacts
2) Flywheels:
Energy stored in mechanical systems as kinetic energy
Audible noises
3) Supercapacitors:
quickly charged and discharged
provides instantaneous power
suffer balancing problems
4) Compressed Air Systems:
systems store energy by means of a compressor in a fluid
long service life and low environmental impact
5) Hydrogen and fuel cells
transportable storage.
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III. ENERGY STORAGE
Fig. 19. Electric machines in the grid at generation side.
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HYBRID SYSTEM
Fig. 20. stand alone PV system with only DC output
Fig. 21. stand alone PV system with both DC and AC
output
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STAND ALONE PV SYSTEMS
Fig. 22. Grid interfaced PV system with both DC and AC output
Fig. 23: Grid interfaced PV system with only AC output
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GRID INTERFACED PV SYSTEMS
Fig. 24. Electrical Network
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TRADITIONAL ELECTRICAL NETWORK
Power converter technology enables
efficient and flexible interconnection
of the different smart grid players or
agents: producers, energy storage
systems, and loads.
A Power System Scenario based
on Smart-Grid Technologies
depends upon
Information plays a crucial role in
smart grids, and the communication
infrastructure is the decisive
component that connects all
distributed network elements, enables
exchange of information, and therefore
makes the grid truly smart
Smart Grid
Power Electronics:
( Handling Energy Flow )
Communication Systems:
( Handling Information Flow )
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SMART-GRID TECHNOLOGIES
Fig. 25. Smart Grid
Electrical Network in smart way
Real time communication between sources, loads, substation, grid.
If minor faults occur control room provides power from nearest DGs within
local grid.
If major faults occur information is transferred to the main grid


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SMART GRID
Power Electronics plays key role to the security of the grid and may
have the capability to work in different operational modes such as
stand alone or grid-interfaced.

In the smart-grid scenario, power electronics should operate to meet
the power demands while ensuring power processing efficiency and
safety.

Transmission systems must manage a bidirectional and controlled
power flow.

Transmission systems must detect and manage fault conditions.

Transmission optimization will be part of the solution to problems of
efficient power processing. For example Continuously Variable
Transmissions (CVTs)

Interconnections through Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS)
and High Voltage DC (HVDC) transmission system could allow
greater energy transfer






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ROLE OF POWER ELECTRONICS
Three major domains for ICT
1. Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) is already widely
used for remote monitoring and controlling of higher levels of the
distribution grid.
2. Active distribution grids are the core of modern smart grids and enable the
integration of distributed energy sources mainly into the mid-level voltage
grid.
3. The predominant task of communication in this respect is to collect critical
network parameters and to actively influence the distributed energy
generation so as to maintain overall power quality. On the lower grid
levels, smart metering is the most relevant use case for ICT.

Fig. 26. Major ICT application domains in smart grids and their correlation with grid levels.
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INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT)
The challenge of interconnection by utility-owned communication infrastructures
would requires,
1. Public telecommunication networks:
provider-based communication capacity for mobile services like a global
system for mobile communication (GSM), general packet radio service
(GPRS), and universal mobile telecommunication system (UMTS) was
significantly increased.

2. Wireless networks:
broadband computer network technologies like worldwide interoperability
for microwave access (WiMAX) and wireless local area network (WLAN) are
problematic with respect to their limited transmission range and reachability,
especially in urban areas.

3. Powerline communication systems :
Exploits the existing power grid as the physical medium for communication.
Powerline communication systems overcome range and reachability
limitations of wireless networks and are therefore a tempting alternative.
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ICT TECHNOLOGIES
The challenge of connecting a renewable source to the utility network is largely
solved by electronic power converters that handle two main tasks
1. Maximum Power Transfer and Power Limit:
On the input side (source), power electronics control and transform the load
characteristics so that maximum power is extracted from the source.

2. Active/Reactive Power Control and Power Quality Control:
a) Controller Structure: two-loop feedback system
-An inner loop based on current feedback regulates the current to the
grid, and hence, the power quality is maintained.
(faster dynamics)
-The outer loop based on voltage feedback is responsible for the flow of
power.
(overall stability)
b) Synchronization: knowledge of grid voltage phase, frequency, and amplitude
phase-locked loop (PLL), Zero crossing Detectors (ZCD)
c) Power Quality: to meet instantaneous reactive and active power
Resonant filters, Flywheel energy storage, batteries and
supercapacitors
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GRID CONNECTION CHALLENGES
192
1. Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)

2. Ancillary Services

3. Decoupling Demand and Generation

4. Dynamic Stability and Power Quality



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GRID CONTROL CHALLENGES
Fig. 27. Maximum Power point from
Power characteristics of PV panel
We need to find the operating point of our
system where power generated is maximum
which depends on weather conditions and
varies in minutes and days.

In case of PV or WT system,



where x is the control input

Two most used techniques for finding the
optimal operating point are:
P and O method
IC method

Grid-Interfaced PV system requires MPPT
which provides max. power based on
varying load demands.

0
dP
dx
=
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1. MPPT CHALLENGES
MPPT should be aware of islanding conditions occur.

MPPT algorithm should be intelligent to mitigate overvoltage
occurring at grid.

Grid tied MPPTs works efficiently during blackouts.
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CONTD...
The IEEE standard 1547.3

Power quality enhancements

Management of higher inflow from distributed resources

Inverter-based distributed resources


Standards supporting primary activities or operations of
individual components to enhance safety and quality of grid
system as whole
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2. ANCILLARY SERVICES
The use distributed generation should optimal and it must bear
load demands
Efficient power generation

Optimal operation based on load demand

high-bandwidth energy-storage mechanism

smoothing power fluctuations

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3. DECOUPLING DEMAND AND GENERATION
Smart micro grids are usually operated with connection to
distribution grids but have the capability of automatically
switching to a stand-alone operation if faults occur in the main
distribution grid.

In addition to challenges of controlling electric power quality,
RESs can also introduce other physical dynamics that are coupled
to electrical phenomena.

Traditional control systems were based on multiple, single-input,
single-output linear feedback loops, independently controlling
generator torque and blade pitch from generator speed
measurement. Multi-input, multi-output linear designs using
generator speed, tower measurement, and blade measurements are
being currently investigated.
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DYNAMIC STABILITY AND POWER QUALITY
Thank You
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