DR.

ATIKAH,Msi,Apt
JURUSAN KIMIA FMIPA-UB
2012
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1
8.1. MORE THAN JUST AIR TO
BREATHE
A Sea of Gas
We live and breathe in the atmosphere, a
sea of gas consisting primarily of elemental
O
2
and N
2
.
Gas molecules are:
in constant, rapid motion, which explains
Pressure Temperature Diffusion

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2
THE GAS LAWS
Gas laws
Pressure in atmospheres (atm) Temperature absolute
(C + 273)
Avogadros law: At constant temperature and pressure the
volume of a gas is directly proportional to the number of
moles.
Charles law: At constant pressure the volume of a fixed
number of moles of gas is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature.
Boyles law: At constant temperature the volume of a fixed
number of moles of gas is inversely proportional to the
pressure.
General gas law relating volume (V), pressure (P), number of
moles (n), absolute temperature (T), a constant (R)
PV = nRT (8.1.1)
Gas law calculations of volumes based upon

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GAS LAW CALCULATIONS
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Calculate the volume of a fixed number of moles of gas
initially occupying 12.0 liters when the temperature is
changed from 10C to 90C at constant pressure.
T
1
= 10 + 273 = 283, and T
2
= 90 + 273 = 363
P and n are constant and cancel

o Calculate V
2
at constant T when P on a volume of gas
occupying initially 11.4 L is changed from 1.16 atm to
0.858
Remember that an increase in temperature increases the volume and
an increase in pressure decreases the volume and vice versa
THE PROTECTIVE ATMOSPHERE
Keeps Earths surface warm by delaying outgoing infrared
radiation
Absorbs very short wavelength ultraviolet radiation from
the sun
Nature of air
In the troposphere within a few kilometers of Earths
surface, a mixture of gases of generally uniform
composition
On a dry basis, 78.1% (by volume) nitrogen, 21.0%
oxygen, 0.9% argon, and 0.04% carbon dioxide
Water vapor 1-3% of the atmosphere by volume
Trace gases below 0.002% including ammonia, carbon
monoxide, helium, hydrogen, krypton, methane, neon, nitrogen
dioxide, nitrous oxide, ozone, sulfur dioxide, and xenon.

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THE PROTECTIVE ATMOSPHERE (CONT.)
If Earth is represented as a globe, the relative thickness
of the atmosphere would be about that of the paint on the
globe surface.
The atmosphere is so thin that in an aircraft that suddenly
loses pressure cruising at 35,000 feet (about 6.6 miles or
10.7 kilometers), the pilot has only about 15 seconds to
grab an oxygen mask before losing consciousness.
Earths diameter is almost 13,000 km.
Aircraft cruise at the upper limit of the troposphere
(next slide)
Average T of about 15 C at sea level
Average T of -56 C at 11 km

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THE TROPOSPHERE

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THE STRATOSPHERE

-2 C at 50 km altitude
Virtually no water vapor in the
stratosphere
Contains ozone, O
3
, and O atoms as
the result of ultraviolet radiation acting
upon stratospheric O
2
The ozone in the stratosphere absorbs
damaging ultraviolet radiation and is
essential for protecting life on Earth

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THE STRATOSPHERE (CONT.)

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8.2. ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY AND
PHOTOCHEMICAL REACTIONS

Atmospheric chemistry refers to chemical processes
that occur in the atmosphere.
Atmospheric chemistry occurs in the gas phase where
molecules are relatively far apart.
A second major aspect of atmospheric chemistry is the
occurrence of photochemical reactions.
Initiated when a photon of ultraviolet radiation is
absorbed by a molecule
The energy of a photon, E, is given by E = h where h is
Plancks constant and is the frequency of the radiation.
Electromagnetic radiation of a sufficiently short wavelength
can cause chemical bonds to break in molecules
This can lead to the formation of reactive species that can
participate in reaction sequences called chain reactions.

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PHOTOCHEMICAL AND CHAIN REACTIONS

Example of dichlorodifluoromethane, CCl
2
F
2
, which was
used in automobile air conditioners
CCl
2
F
2
+ h CCl
2
F
2
+ Cl


(Stratosphere)

(8.2.1)
Species with unpaired electrons such as Cl are very
reactive and are called free radicals.
Reaction of Cl

with stratospheric ozone and the O atoms
required for ozone formation
Cl

+ O
3
O
2
+ ClO (8.2.2)
ClO

+ O O
2
+ Cl (8.2.3)
Net reaction: O
3
+ O O
2
+ O
2
One Cl atom can bring about the destruction of as many
as 10,000 ozone molecules!

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ATMOSPHERIC PARTICLES

Very small particles of the size of a micrometer
or less called aerosols are important in
atmospheric chemical processes.
Particle surfaces can act to catalyze (bring about)
atmospheric chemical reactions.
Solution chemical reactions can occur inside water
droplets.
Condensation nuclei, such as small particles of
NaCl formed from sea spray, act to form water
droplets from atmospheric moisture
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8.3. ENERGY AND MASS TRANSFER IN THE
ATMOSPHERE

The flux of energy reaching Earths atmosphere is 1,340
watts/m
2
.
This enormous amount of energy is redistributed around
Earths surface and eventually radiated back out to
space as electromagnetic radiation.
Energy received from the sun is distributed away from
the Equator largely by convection in moving masses of
air.
Sensible heat from the kinetic energy of rapidly moving
air molecules
Latent heat in the form of water vapor
Heat of vaporization of water is very large 2,259 joules per
gram (J/g)


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REDISTRIBUTION OF ENERGY IN THE ATMOSPHERE

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METEOROLOGY

The movement of air masses, cloud formation, and
precipitation in the atmosphere are covered by the science
of meteorology.
Meteorologic phenomena have a strong effect upon
atmospheric chemistry by processes such as
Movement of air pollutants from one place to another
Conditions under which stagnant pollutant air masses
remain in place so that secondary pollutants, such as
photochemical smog, can form
Precipitation, which can carry acidic compounds from
the atmosphere to Earths surface in the form of acid
rain.


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WEATHER

Weather refers to relatively short term variations
in the state of the atmosphere as expressed by
temperature, cloud cover, precipitation, relative
humidity, atmospheric pressure, and wind.
Weather is driven by redistribution of energy and
water vapor around Earths surface.
Clouds consisting of droplets of liquid water
Wind and air currents may influence air
pollution
Long term trends in weather are expressed by
climate

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TEMPERATURE INVERSIONS

Temperature inversion in which warmer air masses
overlay cooler ones influence air pollution phenomena.

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8.4. ATMOSPHERIC OXYGEN AND
NITROGEN

N
2
and O
2
are by far the most abundant gases in the
atmosphere.
Crucial importance of the stratospheric layer of ozone,
O
3
Oxygen reacts with atmospheric chemical species.
Through action of intermediate species, particularly
hydroxyl radical, HO

SO
2
is converted to H
2
SO
4
CO is converted to CO
2
Atmospheric oxygen comes from photosynthesis
CO
2
+ H
2
O + h {CH
2
O} + O
2
(8.4.2)
where {CH
2
O} is a generic formula representing
biomass

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GREEN OXYGEN AND NITROGEN FROM THE AIR

Elemental oxygen and nitrogen are obtained by distilling
cold liquid air, a process that can also produce noble gas
neon, krypton, and xenon, if desired.
Essentially pure oxygen is used in a number of
applications, such as for steel making, breathing, and
many other applications.
Pure nitrogen provides inert atmospheres free of oxygen
and is used as the very cold liquid in cryogenics.
Oxygen and nitrogen can be separated from air at room
temperature based upon their different adsorption
characteristics on solids or variable permeability through
membranes.
One common such process is called pressure swing
adsorption

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EMERGENCY OXYGEN

Chlorate candle on aircraft
2NaClO
3
2NaCl + 3O
2
(8.4.4)
Heat generated by
4Fe + 3O
2
2Fe
2
O
3
(8.4.4)
ValuJet crash over the Florida Everglades
in 1997 from a fire of tires fed by chlorate
candles improperly shipped in the cargo
compartment

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KUALITAS UDARA & ZAT PENCEMAR
UDARA
Pencemaran Udara yang ditimbulkan oleh aktivitas
manusia sejak lama telah berlangsung
Yakni sejak manusia menggunakan api bagi
keperluan hidupnya
Penggunaan kayu sebagai bahan bakar merupakan
salah satu sumber pencemar udara
Jenis & jumlah pencemar udara semakin meningkat
sejalan dengan semakin banyaknya jenis & jumlah
bahan bakar yang digunakan manusia, terutama
batubara & minyak bumi

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UDARA BERSIH :
Adalah udara yang ditemukan pada daerah cukup
jauh dari tempat keaktifan manusia atau pengaruh-
pengaruh tidak normal, serta memiliki komposisi
kimia seperti tabel 1 berikut ini:

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Komponen udara % Volume
N
2
78,10
O
2
20,93
Argon 0,93
CO
2
0,03-0,04
Kripton 0,0001
Neon 0,0018
Helium 0,005
Xenon 0,00001

Sedangkan komposisi pencemar yang dianggap
boleh ada di dalam udara bersih adalah harus < 1
ppm seperti dalam Tabel 2

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Komponen udara ppm
CO (1-20).10
-2

Ozone 0,5.10
-2

H
2
0,4-1
CH
4
1,2-1,5
N
2
O 0,25-0,6
NO + NO
2
(0-3).10
-3

NH
3
(0-2).10
-2


SUMBER PENCEMAR UDARA:
Dari lapisan udara di bagian paling atas yang
berupa ozone, dapat berasal dari :
Proses penguraian
Proses pembusukan, berupa: NH3; CO dan N2O
Pengaruh cuaca berupa NO2
Pencemar ini dinamakan pencemar alamiah dari
atmosfir


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REAKSI PEMBAKARAN BATUBARA &
TIMBULNYA POLUSI UDARA
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BB &
anorganik

Pembakaran
Debu
Pelepasan spesi
Na, S, Cl
Reaksi fasa gas &
kondensasi
Reduksi Mg,Al,
Si oksida
Senyawa volatil
Dehidrasi
Reaksi fasa
gas/padat
Emisi SOx, HCl
Deposit reaksi
fasa padat
Nukleasi &
pertumbuhan
Pengendap
gas
mineral
Gambar model pembentukan debu selama
pembakaran Batubara
REAKSI YANG TERJADI ADALAH
A.Reaksi Pembakaran :
Dalam reaksi pemanasan ini batubara mengalami
devolatilisasi pada pemanasan & melepaskan :
CO; CO2; H2O, HK rantai pendek
Polutan pembentuk spesi N, S & Cl
Spesi Na (gas) yang membentuk partikel debu

B Pembentukan Polutan
Pembentukan polutan dihasilkan dari reaksi pasa
gas dari spesi N,S,Cl dan Na dan reaksi fasa
padat-gas ditambah adanya spesi Ca akan
menghasilkan bermacam-macam senyawa sulfat &
klorida




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REAKSI PEMBENTUKAN NO
X
Reaksi pembentukan NOx sangat
dipengaruhi oleh adanya oksigen yang
terlibat dalam reaksi :


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CHi
NO
Fuel-N HCN/CN NH
N
2
REAKSI PEMBENTUKAN SO
X
Produk sulfur dari devolatilisasi H
2
S & hanya
senyawa organik yang mengikat S menghasilkan
fasa gas spesi H
2
S; SH; S; S
2
; SO; SO
2
; SO
3
;
HSO
2
; COS; CS dan CS
2

Konsentrasi spesi mayor SO2; H2S; SO3; dan COS
tergantung terutama oleh jumlah oksigen yang
terlibat reaksi

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8.5. ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTANT
PARTICLES

Dispersion aerosols formed by grinding solids, dispersing
dusts, or atomizing liquids
Condensation aerosols produced when gases or vapors,
often formed as the result of atmospheric chemical processes,
condense
Mists include raindrops, fog, cloud droplets, and droplets of
sulfuric acid produced when atmospheric SO
2
is oxidized.
Fly ash is the mineral residue from fuel combustion.
Health effects of atmospheric particles
Allergen pollen Acidic particles
Heavy metals, such as lead, mercury, beryllium
Radioactive radon including
222
Rn (half-life 3.8 days) and
220
Rn (half-life 54.5 seconds), alpha emitters that decay to
radioactive
218
Po and
216
Po
Particles have both direct effects (reduction of visibility) and
indirect effects (reaction sites) in the atmosphere.


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CHEMICAL PROCESSES ON AND IN ATMOSPHERIC
PARTICLES

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LIMITING EMISSIONS OF ATMOSPHERIC PARTICLES

Devices for limiting particle emissions include
Sedimentation Inertial mechanisms
Scrubbers
Fabric filters in baghouses Electrostatic
precipitators

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An electrostatic pre-
cipitator (right)
8.6. POLLUTANT GASEOUS OXIDES

1. Carbon Monoxide
Toxic to humans by binding to blood hemoglobin and
preventing the hemoglobin from transporting oxygen
from the lungs to other tissues.
Catalytic destruction in auto exhausts:
2CO + O
2
2CO
2
(8.6.1)
Modern automobile engines use computerized control of
engine operating parameters along with exhaust catalysts
to control carbon monoxide emissions.

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POLLUTANT GASEOUS OXIDES (CONT.)

2. Sulfur Dioxide
From several natural and pollutant sources
Direct effects
On people with respiratory problems On plants
Most important indirect effect is atmospheric sulfuric acid
formation
2SO
2
+ O
2
+ 2H
2
O 2H
2
SO
4
(8.6.2)
Avoiding sulfur dioxide pollution by not using sulfur-
containing fuels (coal)
3. Fluidized bed combustion in a granular medium of CaO that
absorbs SO
2
CaO + SO
2
CaSO
3
(8.6.3)
Scrubbing with substances that absorb sulfur dioxide from
stack gas
Ca(OH)
2
+ SO
2
CaSO
3
+ H
2
O (8.6.4)

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GREEN CHEMISTRY AND SULFUR DIOXIDE

Sulfur is a valuable raw material required in the
manufacture of sulfuric acid, one of the largest
volume chemicals made.
Hydrogen sulfide, H
2
S, can be used to make
sulfur dioxide.
In the Kalundborg, Denmark, industrial
ecosystem, sulfur dioxide scrubbed from stack
gas is oxidized
CaSO
3
+
1
/
2
O
2
+ 2H
2
O CaSO
4
.
2H
2
O
(8.6.5)
and used to make gypsum for wallboard.

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NITROGEN OXIDES IN THE ATMOSPHERE

Nitrous oxide (N
2
O), colorless, odorless, nitric oxide (NO), and
pungent-smelling, red-brown nitrogen dioxide (NO
2
) occur in
the atmosphere.
Nitrous oxide generated by bacteria
In the stratosphere: N
2
O + h N
2
+ O (8.6.6)
Both NO and NO
2
, collectively designated as NO
x
, are
produced from natural sources, such as lightning and biological
processes, and from pollutant sources.
Pollutant concentrations can become too high locally and
regionally.
In the internal combustion engine,
N
2
+ O
2
2NO (8.6.7)
Combustion of fuels that contain organically bound nitrogen
also produces NO.
Atmospheric chemical reactions convert some of the NO
emitted to NO
2
.

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NO
2
IN THE ATMOSPHERE

Electromagnetic radiation below 398 nm causes
NO
2
+ h NO + O (8.6.8)
Produces highly reactive O atoms
O atoms can participate in a series of chain reactions through
which NO is converted back to NO
2
, which can undergo
photodissociation again to start the whole cycle over.
NO
2
more toxic than NO
Exposure to 100-500 ppm of NO
2
causes a lung condition
called bronchiolitis fibrosa obliterans
Exposed plants may suffer decreased photosynthesis, leaf
spotting, and breakdown of plant tissue.
Reducing release of NO from combustion sources
Limiting excess air so that there is not enough excess oxygen
to produce NO
Exhaust catalytic converters reduce NO
x
emissions from
automobile exhausts.

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8.7. ACID RAIN

Acid rain from H
2
SO
4
, HNO
3
, HCl
Acid deposition, refers to the effects of atmospheric strong
acids, acidic gases (SO
2
), and acidic salts (NH
4
NO
3
and
NH
4
HSO
4
)
Acidic precipitation is a regional air pollution problem

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ACID PRECIPITATION (CONT.)

Adverse effects of acidic precipitation
Direct effects of reduced and distorted visibility from
and particles of acidic salts, such as NH
4
HSO
4
Direct phytotoxicity (toxicity to plants) and destruction
of sensitive forests
Indirect phytotoxicity from release of Al
3+
ion by the
action of acidic rainfall on soil
Direct respiratory effects on humans and other animals
Effects upon plants and fish in acidified lake water
Damage to materials, especially acid-soluble limestone
and marble

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8.8. MISCELLANEOUS GASES IN THE
ATMOSPHERE

1. Ammonia,
NH
3
, from industrial pollution, coke
manufacture, bacterial sources, decay of animal
wastes, accidental releases from liquid
anhydrous ammonia used as an agricultural
nitrogen fertilizer
Ammonia dissolved in water droplets
Acts as base to produce corrosive salts
NH
3
+ H
2
SO
4
NH
4
HSO
4
(8.8.1)
NH
3
+ HNO
3
NH
4
NO
3
(8.8.2)

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HALOGEN GASES IN THE ATMOSPHERE

Gaseous chlorine, fluorine, and volatile fluorides are
uncommon air pollutants, but very serious where they occur.
Elemental chlorine, Cl
2
, is widely produced and distributed as
a water disinfectant, bleach, and industrial chemical.
Accidental releases of Cl
2
have killed people
Hydrogen chloride, HCl, from accidental releases and by
reaction of reactive chlorine-containing chemicals, such as
SiCl
4
,
SiCl
4
+ 2H
2
O SiO
2
+ 4HCl

(8.8.3)
HCl gas from combustion of polyvinylchloride (PVC) plastic
Exists as droplets of hydrochloric acid
Elemental fluorine (F
2
) and hydrogen fluoride, both highly
toxic, are rarely released to the atmosphere.
Gaseous silicon tetrafluoride, SiF
4
, can be released when
fluorspar (CaF
2
) reacts with sand (SiO
2
):
2CaF
2
+ 3SiO
2
2CaSiO
3
+ SiF
4
(8.8.4)
Sulfur hexafluoride, SF
6
, is astoundingly unreactive and a
powerful greenhouse warming gas

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Hydrogen Sulfide, H
2
S
Hydrogen sulfide, H
2
S is as toxic as hydrogen cyanide.
From geothermal sources, the microbial decay of organic sulfur
compounds, and the microbial conversion of sulfate, SO
4
2-
, to H
2
S
when sulfate acts as an oxidizing agent in the absence of O
2
Wood pulping processes can release hydrogen sulfide.
H
2
S is a common contaminant of petroleum and natural gas.
Poza Rica, Mexico, incident in 1950 killed 22 people
H
2
S is phytotoxic (harms or kills plants)
H
2
S forms a black coating of copper sulfide, CuS, on copper
roofing which weathers to CuSO
4
3Cu(OH)
2
.
H
2
S

oxidizes to

SO
2
.
COS and CS
2
, occur in the atmosphere
8.9. CO
2
: THE ULTIMATE AIR
POLLUTANT?
Carbon dioxide, CO
2
, is a normal essential constituent
of the atmosphere.
Levels now about 380 parts per million by volume and
increasing by at least 1 ppm/year
Potential greenhouse effect
Evidence of warming during 1980s, 1990s, early 2000s
Other gases such as N
2
O and CH
4
can cause greenhouse
warming
Increase in Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Levels
Global Temperature Trends
Adverse Effects of Greenhouse Warming
Adverse effects of greenhouse warming
Predictions of average global temperature increase of
1.55 C, as much again as since the last ice age
Would greatly affect climate and rainfall
Melting of the polar and Greenland ice caps along with
expansion of warmer ocean water would raise sea
levels by 0.51.5 meters
Decreased rainfall and increased water evaporation
would contribute to severe drought and water
shortages
Can Green Chemistry Help Deal With Global
Warming?
o Provide means to prevent global warming from taking place
o Coping with global warming, if it occurs.
o Avoid release of carbon dioxide by using biomass as fuel or raw material for the
manufacture of various products
o Carbon sequestration in which carbon dioxide is produced, but is bound in a
form such that it is not released to the atmosphere
Convert carbon in coal to concentrated carbon dioxide that is
pumped underground or into oceans
2C + O
2
+ 2H
2
O 2CO
2
+ 2H
2
(8.9.1)
Alternative methods of energy production
More efficient photovoltaic cells
Devices for direct photochemical dissociation of water to produce
elemental hydrogen and oxygen, which could be used in fuel cells
Plants with much higher efficiencies for photosynthesis
Dealing with Global Warming
Prevent release of greenhouse gases other than carbon
Replacement of very persistent chlorofluorocarbons (Freons) with
compounds readily destroyed in the troposphere
Limit emissions of methane, CH
4
.
Green chemistry, biochemistry, and biology can be used to deal with
global warming when it occurs.
Crops, fertilizers, and pesticides can be developed that enable
plants to grow under the drought conditions that would follow
global warming
Development of salt-tolerant crops that can be grown on soil
irrigated with saline water, where fresh water supplies are limited.
8.10. PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG
Photochemical smog occurs in dry, stagnant air masses,
usually stabilized by a temperature inversion, that are
subjected to intense sunlight.
A smoggy atmosphere contains ozone, O
3
, organic
oxidants, N oxides, aldehydes, and other noxious
species, as well as a haze of fine particles.
The chemical ingredients of smog are nitrogen oxides
and organic compounds, both released from the
automobile, as well as from other sources.
The driving energy force behind smog formation is
electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength at around
400 nm or less, in the ultraviolet region, just shorter
than the limit for visible light.
Formation of active species starting photochemical
reactions.
Reactions Leading to Photochemical Smog
Absorption of a photon of electromagnetic radiation with a
wavelength less than 398 nm by a molecule of nitrogen dioxide,
NO
2
+ h NO + O (8.10.2)
CH
4
+ O H
3
C + HO (8.10.3)
Methyl radical, H
3
C, and a hydroxyl radical, HO, where the dot
shows a single unpaired electron
A chemical species with such a single electron is a free radical.
The hydroxyl radical is especially important in the formation of smog
and in a wide variety of other kinds of photochemical reactions.
The methyl radical can react with an oxygen molecule,
H
3
C + O
2
H
3
COO (8.10.4)
to produce a methylperoxyl radical, H
3
COO, a strongly oxidizing,
reactive species
Reactions Leading to Photochemical Smog
Important reaction is oxidation of NO back to photochemically
active NO
2
NO + H
3
COO NO
2
+ H
3
CO (8.10.5)
Literally hundreds of other reactions can occur, leading eventually
to oxidized organic matter that produces the small particulate
matter characteristic of smog.
Numerous noxious intermediates are generated.
Aldehydes, which are irritants to
eyes and the respiratory tract
Ozone, O
3
, is the single species most characteristic of smog, toxic
to plants and animals.
Oxygen-rich organic compounds containing nitrogen that are potent
oxidizers, of which peroxyacetyl nitrate, PAN, is the most common
example.
Harmful Effects of Smog
Adverse effects upon human health and comfort, plants, materials,
and atmospheric quality
Ozone is generally regarded as being most harmful to humans,
plants, and materials
People exposed to 0.15 parts per million of ozone in air experience
irritation to the respiratory mucous tissues accompanied by
coughing, wheezing, and bronchial constriction.
Especially pronounced for people exercising
Plants are harmed by exposure to nitrogen oxides, ozone, and peroxyacetyl nitrate
(PAN, see above)
PAN is the most harmful of these constituents, damaging younger
plant leaves, especially.
Ozone exposure causes formation of yellow spots on leaves, a
condition called chlorotic stippling (below):
(Chlorotic stippling is manifested by yellow
spots on a green leaf)
Harmful Effects of Smog (Cont.)
Materials are attacked by oxidants
Natural rubber is attacked by ozone; the hardening and
cracking of natural rubber has been used as a test for the
presence of ozone in the atmosphere.
Visibility-reducing aerosol particles
In general, quality of life and esthetics are harmed by
photochemical smog.
Smog and Green Chemistry: Can it Help?
A basic premise of green chemistry is to avoid the
generation and release of chemical species with the
potential to harm the environment.
The best way to avoid formation of smog is to avoid the
release of nitrogen oxides and organic vapors that
enable smog to form.
At an even more fundamental level, measures can be
taken to avoid the use of technologies likely to release
such substances, for example, by using alternatives to
polluting automobiles for transportation.
Solutions to the Smog Problem
The evolution of automotive pollution control devices to
reduce smog provide an example of how green
chemistry can be used to reduce pollution.
Initially command-and-control and end-of-pipe
measures which often led to
Poor performance Very bad fuel economy
Now the automobile engine is a highly sophisticated
computer-controlled machine that generally performs
well, emits few air pollutants, and is highly efficient.
Has required an integrated approach involving
reformulation of gasoline
Elimination of tetraethyllead
Reduction in smog-forming hydrocarbons
Sustainable Measures with the Automobile
Electric automobiles that do not burn gasoline
Limited range
Hybrid automobiles using a small gasoline or diesel
engine that provides electricity to drive electric motors
propelling the automobile and to recharge relatively
smaller batteries.
Fuel cells that can produce electricity directly from the
catalytic combination of elemental hydrogen and
oxygen yielding water exhaust
Best for fleet vehicles that can be refueled frequently
Other Measures to Reduce Smog-Forming
Emissions
Green chemistry applied to devices and processes other
than automobiles to reduce smog-forming emissions
Organic solvents used for parts cleaning and other
industrial operations, vapors of which are often released
to the atmosphere contribute to photochemical smog.
Substitution of water with proper additives or use of
supercritical carbon dioxide fluid can eliminate such
emissions.
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