Master of Water and Environmental Science

Course Title

Statistical Methods in water and Environmental

Science.

Dr. Mohammed Abudaya

 Course Outline
Catalog description:

Using of advanced Statistical methods in evaluation and

interpretation of water and environmental data in: graphical
presentation, data sources and accuracy. It also includes an
interpretation of probability theory, probability distributions, mean,
median, standard deviation, variance, normal distribution and
binomial distribution. Other topics will be covered such as; validity
of questionnaire, sampling distributions, central limit theory,
hypothesis testing, analysis of variance, correlation, regression
analysis and forecasting. It will cover advance statistical methods
in evaluation and interpretation of Environmental data, expectation
and its applications, sampling distributions and statistical inference,
two sample problems, non-parametric tests, analysis of discrete
data, linear regression, multiple regression, analysis of variance
(ANOVA).
Required Text Books/other materials
(1) Choosing and Using Statistics. A Biologist's Guide, 2n
ed. Calvin Dytham (Blackwell Publishing 2003).

(2) SPSS software

 Recommended Text Books.

(3) Statistical For Environmental Science and Management. 2nd

ed. Bryan F.J.Manly (Taylor & Francis Group 2009).

(4) Using Statistical Methods for Water Quality Management,

Issues, Problems and Solutions. 1st ed. Graham B. McBride (A
John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 2005).

(5) Environmental Statistics, Methods and Applications. 1st ed.

Vic Barnett (A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 2007).

(6) ‫ الطبعة‬.‫ نعمان شحادة‬.‫والتوزيع د‬0 .‫الساليب الكمية في الجغرافية باستخدام الحاسوب‬
‫ دار الصفاء للنشر‬.1997 .‫الولي‬.
 Statistical Methods in water and Environmental Science
COURSE.

Units of study (without details):

Unit I Statistics, Variables and Distribution

Unit II Hypothesis testing, sampling and experimental design
Unit III Descriptive and Presentational Techniques
Unit IV Tests to Look at Differences
Unit V Tests to Look at Relationships
Unit VI Applications of SPSS

Evaluation of student learning:

30% Mid Exam

20% Case Studies
40% Final Exam
10% Class Participation
 Chapter 1: Introduction
?What are Statistics
Methods for organizing, summarizing, presenting, &
)interpreting information (data
Statistics “bring chaos to order ”—condense large
amounts of information into smaller understandable units
Vocabulary & symbols for communicating about data
”How to make “judgments (about data) under uncertainty

? How do you know which tool to use) 1(

?What do you want to know) 2(
?What type of data do you have) 3(
 Statistics Definition
is [the theory and method of analyzing
quantitative data obtained from samples
of observations in order to study and
compare sources of variation of
phenomena, to help make decisions to
accept or reject hypothesized relations
between phenomena, and to aid in]
making [reliable] inferences from
empirical observations"
)](Kerlinger, 1986, p. 175
 Limitations of Statistics

Statistics is used from the mooring bed

???? tea to the bed at night, how

•Statistics methods are best applicable to quantitative data.

•Statistics decisions are subject to certain degree of error.

• Statistics statements are true on an average i.e. true for a group

of individuals and may not be true for an individuals.
 Branches of Statistics

1. Descriptive Statistics

Tools for summarizing, organizing & simplifying data

• Tables & Graphs
• Measures of Central Tendency
• Measures of Variability

Examples:
Average rainfall in Gaza last year
Concentration of Nitrate in ground water
Percentage of seniors in this class
2. Inferential Statistics

Data from sample used to draw inferences about a

population

Tools for generalizing beyond actual observations

Generalize from a sample to a population

Population

• The entire collection of events of interest

• E.g., collection of people you want to understand
• Doesn’t necessarily mean “big” but often is
Sample

•Subset of events selected from a population

•Intended to represent the population

? Why not just collect data from the whole population

!Sometimes impractical, often impossible

If we cannot measure everyone in the population, does that

mean we cannot study populations or make any
?conclusions about them
!NO
Data from a sample can tell us something about a
population
Sample will not be identical to the population

So, generalizations will have some error

Generalizations will depend on how well the sample

represents the population.
Representative sample = Sample whose characteristics are
similar to population
Random sampling = each event in the population has
equal chance of being selected for sample
RS increases chances that sample will be representative
rather than biased
example:
Sample of 10 students from our class
Select students at random vs. select first row
Random sampling does not guarantee no bias!
 Sampling
.Population is an aggregate of individuals
Population or the size of the population
.changes with the objective of the study
Sample is a fraction of the population
.chosen by some sampling procedure
It is not always possible to study the
total population, because of (costs,
(.time, requirements...etc
 Methods of Sampling
:Simple Random Sampling. 1

An equal chance of selection is assigned to each unit

.of the population
Samples less than 30
Samples above 30
Table of random numbers
.Example 1: Selection of drinking water wells

Example 2: Selection samples from an agricultural

.field ???population and ??? sample
 Methods of Sampling
:Stratified Random Sampling. 2

.Dividing the population into L classes or Strata

Strata are formed on the basis of
.Homogeneity or similarities
N=N1+N2+N3….+NL
, Example 1: Population = 1000, Sample = 20
,Strata1 = 400, Strata2 = 300, Strata3 = 200, Strata4 = 100
Answer: Number of samples
Strata 1= (400/1000(x20=8
Strata 2= (300/1000(x20=6
Strata 3= (200/1000(x20=4
Strata 4= (100/1000(x20=2
20
 Methods of Sampling
:Systematic Sampling. 3

Divide the population units into n groups each

containing an equal number of units say k
Example 1: Selection of 5 drinking water wells from
.50
10=50/5
Choose a random number let say 7
47 ,37 ,27 ,17 ,7
 Methods of Sampling
:Cluster Sampling. 4

The smallest units into which the population can be

called the elements of the population, and groups of
.element are called the clusters
 Chapter 2: Basic concepts

?WHAT ARE DATA

Collection of information, comprised of 2 parts

)Individuals (also called cases or observations) 1(
Variables) 2(

Individuals are ANY OBJECTS described by data

Do NOT have to be people

Variables are characteristics recorded on/from the individuals

A variable is something that varies—has at least 2 values

Something that changes over time OR
Something that varies across individuals
Types of Data

Categorical (qualitative): records which group or category

an individual/observation belongs in; it classifies; doesn’t
make sense to perform arithmetic on this type of variable
)E.g., gender (Female or Male

Quantitative: a true numerical value; it indicates an

amount; often obtained from a measuring instrument; it
makes sense to perform arithmetic on these types of
variables

E.g., Weight in pounds

?????Other examples
 Pick out the individuals and variables in these
:examples

1. 100 business executives were asked their age

2. 6 water wells measured the dissolved oxygen

3. 8 farmers obtained the weight of 25 pigs

4. 4 technicians measured the sound quality of 10 stereos

 :Variables can be divided into

1. Discrete (discontinuous(:

a( Indivisible units(
b( Restricted to whole numbers(
c( Can be counted(
e.g. # of children in a family
# of houses in a neighborhood
:Continuous

(a) Unlimited number of possible values

(b) Infinite number of values can fall b/n any 2 observed
values
(c) No gaps between units
e.g. time taken to solve a problem, height or weight

Variables can be measured on four different types of

scales:

1. Nominal:
(a) Consists of a set of categories or labels
(b) The ‘score’ does NOT indicate an amount
(c) The ‘score’ is arbitrary
(d) e.g. Sea Level: 1=Low, 2=Medium, 3=High
(c) e.g. land use or soil classifications
(:Ordinal (Rank. 2
a) Score indicates rank order along some continuum(

b) It is a relative score, not an absolute score(

Might have the highest score on the exam, but we still
don’t know how well you did

c) There is NOT an equal distance between scores(

e.g. Finish 1st ,2nd , or 3rd in a race; could be a difference of

seconds b/n 1st & 2nd but a difference of 10 minutes 2
.b/n 2nd & 3rd

e.g. Plants from six pots could be ranked in health order

.by simple observation and assigned values from 1 to 6
Research and Gathering Data

• Science attempts to “discover order in the universe”

• Science searches for relationships between & among

variables

• Two general methods of research:

• Correlation (non-experimental)
• Experimental

• Begin with an hypothesis, a hunch/guess/belief about how

:variables might be related or influence each other

Meditation can reduce stress

1. Correlational Research

Measure variables as they occur naturally

Questionnaires, interviews, observational or archival research

Test hypotheses about association between 2 or more variables

Theory may be causal, but conclusions cannot be

Example:

Survey 100 people

Measure how often (if ever) they meditate
Measure their level of life stress
Look at association between meditation and stress

Can we draw a causal inference?

2. Experimental Research:

Manipulate one variable; examine its effect on an outcome

variable
Independent Variable Dependent Variable

Goal is to draw causal inferences

Cause Effect

The IV presumed to cause changes in DV

IV DV
 Any question
Next Lecture 12/11/2009