Water and Atmospheric Moisture

Hydrologic Cycle

Humidity
Humidity is a general term for the amount of water vapor in
air.
Meteorologist use RELATIVE HUMIDITY and DEW POINT
to measure the amount of water vapor in the air.
Saturated
Air is saturated when it contains the maximum quantity of
water vapor that it can hold at any given temperature and
pressure.
When saturated, warm air contains more water vapor than
cold saturated air.

ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY

Absolute humidity (expressed as grams of water vapor per
cubic meter volume of air)
DEW POINT
The dewpoint is the temperature of air which
is needed for condensation or dew (at that
particular temperature).

RELATIVE HUMIDITY
Relative humidity is a measure of how much water
vapor the air actually could "hold" at a certain
temperature.

The relative humidity represents how close the air is
to saturation.

Saturated air will have an RH of 100 %. You need the
RH of 100% to have rain form in clouds.
To measure relative
humidity use a sling
psychrometer
(hygrometer)






Dry bulb thermometer and a wet bulb
thermometer mounted together

Dry bulb tells actual temperature
Wet bulb shows how much water can be
evaporated temperature lowers as water is
evaporated


The difference in temperature on the 2
thermometers is an indication of the
amount of water vapor in the air.
Dry air: the water will evaporate quickly
and cause a large drop in the wet-bulb
temperature.

This makes the difference in readings on
the 2 thermometers greater.

Moist air: little water will evaporate from
the wet-bulb and the temperature decrease
will be small.

The difference between the wet bulb and
dry bulb will be small.
When the Wet bulb temperature = the dry
bulb temperature

100% HUMIDITY!!!
Wet- and Dry Bulb Psychrometer
Psychrometric Chart.

If the difference
between wet and
dry bulb is 6 F
and the
temperature is
72 F (dry bulb),
then the RH is
54%.
Capacity of air is primarily a function of temperature
Relative Humidity (RH) =
(actual water vapor content) x 100
(max. water vapor capacity of the air)

Heated air becomes lower in RH because
denominator gets larger
Cooled air becomes higher in RH

Saturation vs Air Temperature
The actual amount of
Water air can hold changes
With air temperature

Air at 104 F can hold 3 times
As much water as 68 F air !
(47 grams vs only 15 grams)

Air at 68 F can hold 4 times
As much water as air at 0 F
(15 grams vs only 4 grams)
32 F
68 F
104 F
4 grams
15 grams
47 grams
Saturation and Dew Point
Saturated v.
unsaturated air
Dew-point
temperature
temperature to which
air must be cooled to
reach saturation (100%
RH)
water on outside of
drinking glass
ice on your car window
dew and fog
Adiabatic Cooling
Relative Humidity and Temp.
RH fluctuates over a day or season.
Moisture, Clouds & Precipitation

Question:
What Causes Air to Precipitate?
After Saturation Occurs the Air
Must Release Extra Water as Fluid
Water forms on the outside of a cold glass as the cold
Air surrounding the glass chills the air to the Dew
Point Temperature

The resulting water
is not from the glass,
the water is from
condensation of
moisture in the air
around the glass.
Atmospheric Lifting
Mechanisms
Air lifting processes create clouds & precipitation.
Saturation of air and cloud condensation nuclei
(dust/pollen) required.
Four types of lifting are
recognized:
1. Convectional Lifting
2. Convergence
3. Orographic Lifting
4. Frontal Lifting
Convectional Lifting
Anywhere air is warmer
than its surrounding air,
it will rise.

In this example an island
heats more than the
surrounding water and
causes a massive cumulus
cloud to form.
Convectional Lifting Over Florida
Warmer temperatures over the peninsula of
Florida, which is land, cause air to rise
compared to the cooler oceans nearby

Rising air in this
Shuttle Picture is
Shown by a
Cloud pattern
which generally
follows the shape
of the southern
Florida peninsula
Convectional Lifting in the Desert
Extremely high afternoon temperatures in late
summer often leads to thunderstorms
throughout the worlds arid regions.

The Grand Canyon in August
Mojave Desert
Convergence
Convergence occurs
when large air masses
meet & are forced to
rise vertically by
crowding of
molecules.

This process is best seen
at the ITCZ where the
Trades Winds meet &
rise to form towering
clouds & heavy
precipitation

Orographic Lifting of
Air
When air moving
Horizontally
Encounters a
Mountain it must
Rise over the crest

As it rises, it cools
To create clouds,
And most often
precipitation
Moist
Air
Moisture
Lost
Dry
Air
Run off NO Run off
Frontal Lifting of
Air
Although not a mountain range, masses of moving air
Create the same effect Unlike mountains air masses
Can provide lifting in many different locations

Fronts can lift air
Which is stable,
Creating clouds
& large amounts
Of precipitation
As rain, snow,
Sleet or hail
Precipitation Types / Properties
Global Precipitation
Variation in Precipitation:
The monthly and annual precipitation affect the
characteristics of the climate of different places.

The distribution of annual precipitation can be
classified as humid, sub humid, wet, semi-
arid, and arid.

Global Distribution of Precipitation
The area of maximum annual precipitation, over
2000mm per year, extends in a band through the
equatorial regions.
The subtropical deserts and the polar regions have
values below 250 mm.
The mid-latitude regions have intermediate
values, general about 1000 mm per year.
Factor affecting the distribution of precipitation:
Effects of Latitude

The global variation in the thermal environment in turn
determines the pressure distribution.

At the high latitudes, e.g. poles, the low temperatures result
in the contraction of air and hence the development of high
pressure.
At the low latitudes, the high temperatures along the equator
result in the expansion of air and hence the development of
low pressure.

The spatial variation in the distribution of pressure results in
the motion of air (winds) which plays an important role in
determine the amount and seasonal distribution of
precipitation.




Pressure system
The global distribution of precipitation is considered to be
basically correlated with the planetary pressure systems.

Near to the Horse Latitude and the Polar regions where the
pressure is high, precipitation is scarce due to the subsiding
air stream.

However, near to the equatorial low pressure belt and sub-
polar low pressure belt, precipitation is abundant due to the
strong updraft.

Prevailing Wind
In general, the rainfall will be abundant and evenly
distributed if the regions are of prevailing onshore wind all
the year.

The rainfall will be little or scarce when the regions are of
prevailing offshore wind all the year.

When regions, usually monsoon regions, lie in the path of
rain-bearing onshore wind for one season and in the path of
non-bearing offshore wind in other season, the distribution
of rainfall will vary seasonally.

Mountain barrier
In temperate latitudes, rainfall increases with elevation
(wind slope) because air expands and cools as it rises,
probably resulting in orographic rainfall.

However, in tropical areas, precipitation may decrease with
increasing altitude since much of the tropical rainfall is of
convective type.

As altitude increases, there will be a corresponding decrease
in convection, The amount being received will be smaller.

Effect of Continentality
Under the influence of prevailing onshore wind, coastal
areas will generally receive more precipitation than that of
continental regions.

The amount of precipitation will steadily decrease moving
inland.

Some coastal areas receive scarce precipitation when there
are offshore winds.

The effect of continentality should be considered together
with the direction of prevailing winds.

Ocean Current
It is regarded as local factor as it operates over small
area.

A wind blowing over a cold current becomes cooled
and may lose most or all of its water vapor through
condensation. When the wind crosses over the land,
it is not likely to produce rain. This happens off the
coasts of southern California
A wind blowing over a warm current is warmed and the rate
of evaporation increases. The wind becomes moist and when
it crosses over the land, it will yield rain if it is made to rise.

e.g. if it crosses a mountain range, westerlies winds crossing
the warm North Atlantic Drift bring heavy rainfall to north
western Europe.
Summary:
Factors affecting the world distribution of
rainfall
Factors Rainfall is possible Rainfall is impossible
Temperature
High temperature
causes air to rise
Low temperature
causes air to sink
Pressure Low pressure, cyclones
High pressure with
sinking air, e.g.
anticyclones
Slope Windward slope Leeward slope
Wind Onshore wet wind Offshore dry wind
Distance from the sea Coastal area Inland
Ocean currents and
onshore wind
Warm ocean current Cold ocean current

Acid Rain
ACID RAIN AND ITS EFFECT ON THE ENVIRONMENT
What is acid rain and what is the scale of
the problem?
How do we know if the rain is acid?
What causes acid rain (chemical
reactions)?
Where do the acid rain precursors come
from?
How does acid rain affect the
environment?
What can we do to protect our planet
form acid rain?

Acid rain, or acid deposition, is a
mixture of sulphuric and nitric acids.

Wet deposition
rain
hail
snow
fog
Dry deposition
gases and particles

The valid risk assessment

The net acid deposition flux
pH Scale

(pH value - below 5.6 is acidic).
SOURCES


The main precursors of acid rain are emissions of sulphur dioxide
(SO
2
), nitrogen oxides (NO
x
) and Carbon dioxide (CO
2
)

Fuel combustion in power plants (SO
2
)
Exhaust pipes in automobiles (NO
x
)

MAN MADE
Acid rains appear when
Sulphur dioxyde Nitrogen oxide
Release sulphuric acid and nitric acid !
They move up into the air and are released as
acid rains
NATURAL:

Terrestial, tidal, and nutrient-rich oceanic areas
Volcanic eruptions
Forest fires
Outgassings from anaerobic wetlands
Breakdown of amino acids in organic wastes
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS

Water and marine life
Extinction of fish in lakes
Flora
Plants, forests, crops
leaf necrosis, tissue damage, death of the whole tree
Soil
Improper growth of plants and trees
Human Health
respiratory problems
POLICIES AND TAKING ACTION
Strategies for mitigating acid rain

Liming bodies of acidified water
This process of neutralizing acidity in endangered lakes and streams is
through the addition of lime (calcium carbonate and calcium hydroxide).
Chemicals such as caustic soda, sodium carbonate, slacked lime and
limestone help raise pH of acidified water.
Drawbacks:
Very expensive
Treatment needs to be repeated every 3-6 years
Remote lakes are inaccessible
Large pieces of lime dissolve slowly
Doesnt solve the problem for soil acidification

Reducing SO2 and NOx emissions
Changing from high to low sulfur coal
Moving to non-fossil fuels such as nuclear power
Using Solar, Wind or Hydro resources
COAL CLEANING
IMPROVING IN-PROCESS TECHNOLOGY
REDUCTION OF COMBUSTION TEMPERATURE (NO
X
)


CHANGING THE FUEL USED: