The Endocrine System

Controls many body

functions
exerts control by
releasing special
chemical substances into
the blood called
hormones
Hormones affect other
endocrine glands or body
systems
Derives its name from
the fact that various
glands release
hormones directly into
the blood, which in turn
transports the
hormones to target
tissues via ducts.
The Endocrine System
Exocrine glands -
transport their
hormones to target
tissues via ducts.



Endocrine
Emergencies:
from common:
Diabetes
to the unusual:
Thyrotoxicosis

The Endocrine System

Consists of several
glands located in
various parts of the
body.

Pituitary gland: a small
gland located on a stalk
hanging from the base of the
brain - AKA

The Master Gland

Primary function is to
control other glands.
Produces many
hormones.
Secretion is controlled by
the hypothalamus in the
base of the brain.

The Endocrine System
The Pituitary Gland is
divided into 2 areas,
which differ
structurally and
functionally
each area has
separate types of
hormone production.

The two segments are:
Posterior Pituitary:
produces oxytocin
and antidiuretic
hormone (ADH)
Anterior Pituitary:
produces thyroid-
stimulating hormone
(TSH)
growth hormone (GH)
adrenocorticotropin
(ACTH)
follicle-stimulating
hormone (FSH)


The Endocrine System
And even more
luteinizing hormone
(LH)
prolactin

Lets go over these
one at a time...


Posterior Pituitary
Oxytocin (the
natural form of
pitocin)
stimulates gravid
uterus
causes let down
of milk from the
breast.
ADH (vasopressin)
causes the kidney to
retain water.

The Endocrine System
Anterior Pituitary
Primarily regulates
other endocrine
glands
rarely a factor in
endocrinological
emergencies
TSH stimulates the
thyroid gland to
release its
hormones, thus
metabolic rate
Anterior Pituitary
Growth hormone
(GH)
glucose usage
consumption of
fats as an energy
source
ACTH stimulates the
adrenal cortex to
release its hormones
FSH & LH stimulates
maturation & release
of eggs from ovary.

The Endocrine System
The Thyroid Gland
lies in the anterior
neck just below the
larynyx.
Two lobes, located
on either side of the
trachea, connected
by a narrow band of
tissue called the
isthmus.
Sacs inside the
gland contain colloid
Within the colloid are
the thyroid hormones:
thyroxine (T4)
triiodothyronine (T3)
When stimulated
(by TSH or by
cold), these are
released into the
circulatory system
and the
metabolic rate.
C cells within the
thyroid produce the
hormone calcitonin.
The Endocrine System
Calcitonin, when
released, lowers the
amount of calcium in
the blood.
Inadequate levels of
thyroid hormones =
hypothyroidism, or
Myxedema.


Myxedema symptoms:
Facial bloating
weakness
cold intolerance
lethargy
altered mental
status
oily skin and hair
TX: replacement of
thyroid hormone.
The Endocrine System
Increased thyroid
hormone release
causes
hyperthyroidism,
commonly called
Graves disease.
Signs and
symptoms:
insomnia, fatigue
tachycardia
hypertension
heat intolerance
weight loss
Long term
hyperthyroidism:
Exopthalmos
bulging of the
eyeballs (picture
Barbara Bush)
In severe cases - a
medical emergency
called thyrotoxicosis
can result.



The Endocrine System
Parathyroid Glands
small, pea-shaped
glands, located in the
neck near the thyroid
usually 4 - number can
vary
regulate the level of
calcium in the body

produce parathyroid
hormone - level of
calcium in blood

Hypocalcemia can
result if parathyroids
are removed or
destroyed.

The Endocrine System
Pancreas
a key gland located in
the folds of the
duodenum
has both endocrine and
exocrine functions
secretes several key
digestive enzymes
Islets of Langerhans
specialized tissues in
which the endocrine
functions of the
pancreas occurs
include 3 types of
cells:
alpha ( )
beta ()
delta ()
each secretes an
important hormone.
The Endocrine System
Alpha () cells
release glucagon,
essential for
controlling blood
glucose levels.
When blood glucose
levels fall, cells
the amount of
glucagon in the blood .

The surge of glucagon
stimulates the liver to
release glucose stores
(from glycogen and
additional storage
sites).
Also, glucagon
stimulates the liver to
manufacture glucose -
gluconeogenesis.
The Endocrine System
Beta Cells () release
insulin (antagonistic to
glucagon).
Insulin the rate at
which various body
cells take up glucose.
Thus, insulin lowers
the blood glucose
level.
Insulin is rapidly
broken down by the
liver and must be
secreted constantly.
Delta Cells ()
produce somatostatin,
which inhibits both
glucagon and insulin.
The Endocrine System
Adrenal Glands
2 small glands that sit
atop both kidneys.

Each has 2 divisions,
each with different
functions.
the Adrenal Medulla
secretes the
catecholamine
hormones
norepinephrine and
epinephrine (closely
related to the
sympathetic
component of the
autonomic nervous
system).

The Endocrine System
The Adrenal Cortex
secretes 3 classes of
hormones, all steroid
hormones:
gluticocorticoids
mineralocorticoids
androgenic hormones

One at a time
gluticocorticoids:
accounts for 95% of
adrenal cortex
hormone production
the level of glucose
in the blood
Released in response to
stress, injury, or
serious infection - like
the hormones from the
adrenal medulla.
The Endocrine System
Mineralocorticoids:
work to regulate the
concentration of
potassium and sodium
in the body.
Prolonged in
adrenal cortex
hormone results in
Cushings Disease.
Signs & Symptoms of
Cushings Disease:
in blood sugar levels
unusual body fat
distribution
rapid mood swings
The Endocrine System
And - if there is an
in mineralocorticoids
as well
A serious electolyte
imbalance will occur
due to the potassium
excretion by the
kidney, which results
in hypokalemia.
Sodium can also be
retained by the kidney,
resulting in
hyponatremia.
Causes:
dysrhythmias
coma
death
usually results from a
tumor - TX? Removal
of tumor.
The Endocrine System
Gonads and Ovaries:
the endocrine glands
associated with human
reproduction.
Female ovaries
produce eggs
Male gonads produce
sperm
both have endocrine
functions.


Ovaries:
located in the
abdominal cavity
adjacent to the uterus.
Under the control of
LH and FSH from the
anterior pituitary they
manufacture
estrogen
protesterone
The Endocrine System
Estrogen and
Progesterone have
several functions,
including sexual
development and
preparation of the
uterus for implantation
of the egg.
Testes:
located in the scrotum
produce sperm for
reproduction
manufacture
testosterone -
promotes male growth
and masculinization
Controlled by anterior
pituitary hormones
FSH and LH.
The Endocrine System
Endocrine
Emergencies:
Diabetes Mellitus
one of the most
common diseases in
North America.
insulin secretion by
the Beta () cells of
the islets of
Langerhans in the
pancreas.
Complications of
Diabetes:
contributes to heart
disease
stroke
kidney disease
blindness
The Endocrine System
Pathophysiology of
Diabetes:
Glucose Metabolism
Glucose (dextrose) is a
simple sugar required
by the body to produce
energy.
Sugars, or
carbohydrates, are 1 of
3 major food sources
used by the body.
The other 2 major
food sources are
proteins
fats
Most sugars in the
human diet are
complex and must be
broken down into
simple sugars:
glucose, galactose and
fructose - before use.
The Endocrine System
Breakdown of sugars
is carried out by
enzymes in the gastro
intestinal system.
As simple sugars, these
are absorbed from the
GE system into the
body.
More than 95% enter
the body as glucose.
To be converted into
energy, glucose must
first be transmitted
through the cell
membrane. BUT - the
glucose molecule is
large and doesnt
readily diffuse through
the cell membrane.
The Endocrine System
Glucose must pass
into the cell by
binding to a special
carrier protein on the
cells surface.
Facilitated diffusion -
doesnt use energy.
The carrier protein
binds with the glucose
and carries it into the
cell.
The rate at which
glucose can enter the
cell is dependent upon
insulin levels.
Insulin serves as the
messenger - travels via
blood to target tissues.
Combines with specific
insulin receptors on the
surface of the cell
membrane.