The Digestive System

Organs of digestion
Gastrointestinal
tract (alimentary
canal)
mouth
pharynx
esophagus
stomach
small intestine
large intestine
Organs of digestion
Accessory
structures of
digestive
system
teeth
tongue
salivary glands
liver
gallbladder
pancreas
Digestive processes
Ingestion
Taking of food and liquid into the mouth (eating)
Secretion
Cells secrete ~7 litres of fluids per day
Mixing and Propulsion
Mixing and movement of material along GI tract is
termed motility
Digestion
Mechanical
Chemical
Absorption
Defecation
Indigestible material eliminated as feces during
defacation
Layers of GI tract
Mucosa
Epithelium
cells firmly sealed by
tight junctions
secretes mucus,
digestive enzymes and
hormones
Absorption
Lamina propria
Contains mucosa-
associated lymphatic
tissue
Muscularis mucosae
causes folds which
increase surface area
Layers of GI tract
Submucosa
Blood and lymphatic
vessels
Glands
Submucosal plexus
Regulates movement
of mucosa and
vasoconstriction of
blood vessels
Layers of GI tract
Muscularis
Mouth, pharynx, upper
esophagus and external
anal sphincter contain
skeletal muscle
Rest of GI tract contains
smooth muscle
inner circular and outer
longitudinal layers
Myenteric plexus
between layers
Controls motility
Layers of GI tract
serosa (visceral
peritoneum)
Forms portion of
peritoneum
Peritoneum
Peritoneum
Largest serous membrane in
body
Parietal layer
Lines wall of abdomino-
pelvic cavity
Visceral layer
Covers some organs in
cavity
Peritoneal cavity
Contains serous fluid
Folds bind organs to each other
and to walls of abdominal cavity

Mouth - Salivary glands
Mucous membranes of mouth and
tongue secrete small amount of
saliva
Most saliva secreted by major
salivary glands which lie outside
the mouth
Parotid
Submandibular
Sublingual
Mouth - composition and
functions of saliva
Saliva is ~99.5% water
contains:
IgA
Lysozyme
Salivary amylase
Various solutes, organic substances, etc
Saliva functions to:
keep mucous membranes of mouth and pharynx moist
cleanse mouth and teeth
dissolve food
begin chemical digestion of carbohydrates (salivary amylase)
Mouth - control of salivation
Salivation under nervous
control
salivary nuclei in brain stem
Receive input from cortex,
taste buds, olfactory apparatus
Parasympathetic output
increases salivation
Sympathetic output reduces
salivation (dry mouth when
stressed)
Dr Ivan Pavlov, Winner 1904 Nobel Prize for
Medicine
From: http://www.uic.edu/depts/mcne/founders/page0072.html
Mouth digestion
Mechanical and chemical digestion occur in the
mouth
Mechanical digestion results from mastication
Chemical digestion begins
Salivary amylase
Initiates breakdown of starch
Lingual lipase
Hydrolyses triglycerides into fatty acids and glycerol
Secreted in inactive form by glands in tongue
Becomes activated in acid environment of stomach
Pharynx - deglutition
Swallowing occurs in 3 stages:
Voluntary stage
Bolus passed into oropharynx by
tongue
Pharyngeal stage
Bolus stimulates stretch receptors
in oropharynx
Send impulses to deglutition
centre in brain stem
Involuntary passage of bolus into
esophagus
Esophageal stage
Involuntary passage of bolus
through esophagus into stomach
Esophagus
Collapsible muscular tube behind trachea
Secretes mucus and transports food into stomach
Passes through mediastinum
Pierces diaphragm through esophageal hiatus
Upper and lower sphincters
lower sphincter is physiological sphincter
Diaphragm helps keep lower sphincter closed when not
swallowing
Food moves via peristalsis
Controlled by neurons in medulla oblongata
Stomach
Stomach
acts as a mixing chamber
and holding reservoir
Starch digestion continues
protein and triglyceride
digestion begins
Muscularis has 3 layers
Additional oblique layer

Stomach
Columns of secretory cells
form gastric glands which line
gastric pits
Mucous cells
Secrete mucus
Parietal cells secrete:
hydrochloric acid
Intrinsic factor
Required for absorption
of vitamin B12
Chief cells secrete:
Pepsinogen
Gastric lipase
G cells
Secrete gastrin
Stomach
Mechanical digestion
After food enters stomach mixing waves occur every 15-25 sec
Aid in mechanical digestion to form chyme
Forces chyme into duodenum (start of small intestine)
Chemical digestion
HCL
denatures proteins
Pepsinogen converted to pepsin in presence of HCL and other
pepsin molecules
Hydrolyses peptide bonds
Gastric lipase hydrolyses triglycerides
Regulation of gastric secretion and motility
Cephalic phase
Sight, smell, taste or thought of food recognised by cerebral cortex or feeding
centre in hypothalamus
Nerve impulses sent to medulla oblongata
Sends impulses to submucosal plexus (in submucosa)
Increases secretion from gastric glands and stomach motility (via gastrin secretion)
Gastric phase
when food reaches stomach stimulates
Stretch receptors
Chemoreceptors (monitor pH)
Stimulate secretion of Gastrin (by G cells)
Maintains gastric secretion and motility
Intestinal phase
Stimulation of intestinal receptors as food enters small intestine stimulates
secretion of
Secretin reduces gastric secretion
CCK-inhibits gastric emptying
Slows exit of chyme from stomach into duodenum

Pancreas
Pancreas connected to
duodenum
Secretes pancreatic juice into
duodenum
99% of cells arranged in
clusters called acini
Exocrine portion of gland
Secrete pancreatic juice
Pancreas pancreatic juice
Pancreatic juice contains:
Water
Salts
Sodium bicarbonate
Several enzymes which digest:
carbohydrates
Pancreatic amylase
Proteins
Trypsin - secreted in inactive form and activated by brush-border enzyme called
enterokinase
Chymotrypsin secreted in inactive form and activated by trypsin
Cartboxypeptidase secreted in inactive form and activated by trypsin
Elastase secreted in inactive form and activated by trypsin
Triglycerides
Pancreatic lipase
Nucleic acids
Ribonuclease
Deoxyribonuclease
Liver
Heaviest gland in body
Two lobes
Large right lobe
Smaller left lobe
Lobes made up of functional
units called lobules
Six-sided structure with
hepatocytes arranged
around central vein
Blood from hepatic artery
and hepatic portal
circulation passes through
sinusoids and drains into
central veins
Bile enters bile canaliculi
and moves to gallbladder
Blood supply
Hepatic artery
delivers oxygenated
blood
Hepatic portal
circulation
delivers nutrient rich
blood from intestines
Liver
Functions of liver:
CHO metabolism
glycogenolysis
gluconeogenesis
glycogenesis
Lipid metabolism
Synthesise lipoproteins and cholesterol
Store triglycerides
-oxidation
Protein metabolism
Deaminate amino acids
Synthesise plasma proteins
Bile production
Detergent-like acidic buffer
Emulsifies lipids
Process drugs and hormones
Excrete bilirubin
Derived from heme of worn out RBC (secreted into bile)
Store vitamins and minerals
Phagocytosis of RBC, WBC and bacteria (Kupffers cells)
Activation of vitamin D
Gall bladder
Bile production signalled by
parasympathetic activity
secretin - released when acidity in
duodenum (secretin also inhibits
gastric secretion)
Bile stored and concentrated in
gallbladder
released when fatty acids and
amino acids enter duodenum
signalled by CCK (also inhibits
gastric emptying)
Small intestine
Extends from
pyloric sphincter
to ileocecal valve
3 parts:
duodenum
jejunum
ileum
Small intestine
Most digestion and
absorption of nutrients
occurs in SI
Length gives large surface
area (3m in living person)
Surface area increased by:
circular folds (plicae
circulares) - mix chyme
villi - capillaries and
lacteals
microvilli
Small intestine
Mechanical digestion
Segmentation mixes chyme
Peristalsis (migrating motility complex) occurs
once absorption complete
Slowly migrates along SI over 90-120 min period
Chyme remains in SI for 3-5 hours
Small intestine
Chemical digestion
CHO
Pancreatic amylase splits starch into smaller fragments
Brush border enzyme ( -dextrinase) then breaks down to glucose
Disaccharides (sucrose, lactose and maltose) broken down by brush border
enzymes
Proteins
Trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase and elastase break protein down into
peptides
Each breaks different peptide bonds
Brush border enzymes aminopeptidase and dipeptidase break peptides into amino
acids
Lipids
Bile salts emulsify triglycerides into small droplets
Pancreatic lipase hydrolyses triglycerides
Nucleic acids
Ribonuclease and deoxyribonuclease break nucleic acids into nucleotides
Brush border enzymes (nucleosidases and phosphatases) break nucleotides into
pentoses, phosphates and nitrogenous bases
Absorption
Monosaccharides
Secondary active transport with
sodium
facilitated diffusion (fructose)
Amino acids, dipeptides,
tripeptides
amino acids primary or secondary
active transport
di- and tripeptides secondary active
transport
All move into capillaries in villus
Absorption
Lipids
Absorbed via simple diffusion
Short-chain fatty acids move into
capillaries in villus
Others move into lacteals
bile combines with long-chain fatty
acids and monoglycerides to form
micelles
micelles contact epithelial cell
membrane
lipids diffuse through membrane
resynthesised to triglycerides inside
epithelial cells
coated with proteins to form
chylomicrons
chylomicrons too large to move into
capillaries and move into lacteals
Absorption
Large molecules (eg
complete proteins) not
absorbed
How then can foods
containing functional
proteins exert their effects?
eg bovine colostrum
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Whey protein
Control
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Adapted from: Buckley JD, GD Brinkworth, E Southcott, RN Butler. Bovine colostrum
and whey protein supplementation during running training increase intenstinal
permeability. Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition 13:s81, 2004.
Large intestine
Approx 1.5 m long
Extends from ileocecal sphincter
to anus
Tonic contraction of three
longitudinal muscles (teniae coli)
form pouches (haustra)
4 divisions:
cecum
colon
rectum
anal canal
internal sphincter - smooth
muscle
external sphincter - skeletal
muscle
Large intestine
No villi or circular folds
in mucosa
Epithelium contains
mostly absorptive cells
(water absorption) and
goblet cells (secrete
mucus)
Located mostly in
intestinal glands
Large intestine
Mechanical digestion
Movements of large intestine begin when substances pass iliocecal
sphincter
Haustral churning
distention of haustra as chyme enters LI initiates haustral churning
Peristalsis occurs at slower rate than in SI
Mass peristalsis
Strong peristaltic wave that begins at mid-transverse colon drives contents
into rectum
Occurs during or immediately after meal when food enters stomach
Chemical digestion
Final stage of digestion occurs in LI through activity of bacteria
Produces gases and other by-products
Eg vitamins