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Mg
2+
+ Cu
Note:
1. Magnesium is more electropositive than copper.
2. In the reaction, magnesium displaced copper(II) ions
from the solution.
3. Magnesium is oxidised by releasing 2 electrons.
4. Copper(II) ion is reduced by receiving 2 electrons
from magnesium.
Oxidising agent: Copper(II) ion
Reducing agent: Magnesium
Displacement of Halogen From Halide Solution
1.Halogens are elements in Group 17 of the Periodic Table of
Elements. They are fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine,
astatine.
2.All halogens tend to accept one electron to form negative
ions. For instance,
3.The ions of halogen are called halide.
4.The electronegativity of halogens decreases down the
group, as shown in the chart below:
Cl
2
+ 2e 2C1
-
5.Halogen which placed higher in group 17
are more electronegative
act as strong oxidising agent
can be reduced easily
6. The halogen which is at a higher position in group 17 (
more electronegative and reactive) can displace a halogen
that is below it (less electronegative and less reactive)
from its solution of halide ions.
7. When the displacement reaction of the halogen occurs:
transfer of electrons from the halide ions which are
positioned further down in group 17 to halogens
which are positioned further up occurs.
Halogens which are positioned further up in group 17
act as oxidation agents.
These halogens undergo reduction and are reduced
to halide ions. The halide ions which are positioned
further down in group 17 act as reducing agents.
These ions undergo oxidation and are oxidised to
halogens.
Example
Reaction between Chlorine water and Potassium Bromide
solution.
Procedure
1. A few drops of chlorine water are added to 2 cm of
potassium bromide solution.
2. 2 cm of tetrachloromethane is then added into the
mixture and shaken.
3. The colour of the tetrachloromethane (the lower layer)
is recorded.
Observation:
The colourless tetrachloromethane turn brown. This indicates
that bromine is presence in the solution.
Half Equation:
2Br
-
Br
2
+ 2e
Cl
2
+ 2Cl
-
Cl
2
Ionic Equation:
Cl
2
+ 2Br
-
2Cl
-
+ Br
2
Note:
1. Chlorine is more electronegative than bromine.
2. In the reaction, chlorine molecules displaced bromide ions
in the solution.
3. Bromide ion is oxidised by releasing electrons to become
bromine.
4. Chlorine molecule is reduced by receiving electrons from
bromide ion.
Oxidising agent: Chlorine
Reducing agent: Bromide
Identifying Halogens in a Solution
1. If halogen or halide ions are involved, usually a
confirmatory test is required to testify the presence of
the halogen or halides. The tetrachloromethane can be
used in the halogen confirmatory test.
2. This can be done by shaking the aqueous halogen solution in
a little tetrachloromethane. Two layer; are formed.
Tetrachloromethane which is denser forms a layer below
while the aqueous solution forms a layer on top. So, the
halogen present can be confirmed by the colour of the
halogen in tetrachloromethane.
3. The identity of chlorine, bromine and iodine cannot be
confirmed through the colour of its aqueous solution
because its colour changes depending on its concentration.
4. Halide solutions in water are colourless. For example,
solution of NaCl, NaBr, NaI, KCl, KBr and KI are colourless.
Halogen Colour of aqueous solution Colour of halogen in
tetrachloromethane
Chlorine Pale yellow and almost
colourless
Pale yellow and almost colourless
Bromine Brown or yellowish brown or
yellow
depending on concentration
Brown or reddish yellow or yellow
depending on concentration
Iodine Brown or yellowish brown or
yellow
depending on concentration
Purple
Transfer of Electrons from One Point to Another
1. A redox reaction occurs when a solution of an oxidising
agent is mixed with a solution of a reducing agent.
2. If the solution of the oxidising agent and the solution of
the reducing agent are separated by an electrolyte in a
U-tube, the redox reaction will still take place but the
transfer of electrons will occur through the connecting
wire.
3. The reducing agent undergoes oxidation with the
loss of electrons. So, the carbon electrode that is
immersed in the solution of the reducing agent
becomes the negative cell terminal.
4. Electrons flow through the connecting wire to the
carbon electrode that is immersed in the oxidising
agent solution. The carbon electrode acts as the
positive cell terminal.
5. The oxidising agent undergoes reduction with the
acceptance of electrons.
Guide to Solve Problems Related to the Transfer of
Electrons Through a Distance
1. Oxidation always happens at anode.
2. Reduction always happens at cathode.
3. Anode is the negative terminal.
4. Cathode is the positive terminal.
Reaction Between Potassium Dichromate(VI) and Potassium
Iodide
Step 1: Identifying the Oxidising Agent and
Reducing Agent
Oxidising Agent: Potassium dichromate(VI)
Reducing Agent: Potassium Iodide
Step 2: Determining the Oxidation and Reduction Process
and Predicting the Observation
Oxidation
The reducing agent (Potassium Iodide) undergoes oxidation
2I
-
--> I
2
+ 2e
Observation: The colourless solution turn yellow/orange.
Note: Potassium iodide is colourless whereas iodine is yellow or orange in colour
when dissolve in water.
Reduction
The oxidising agent undergoes reduction
Cr
2
O
7
2-
+ 14H
+
+ 6e 2Cr
3+
+ 7H
2
O
Observation: The orange colour of the solution turn green.
Note: Dichromate(VI) ion is orange in colour whereas chromium(III) ion is green in
colour
Step 3: Identifying the Anode and Cathode
Electrode P: Anode
Electrode Q: Cathode
Note: Oxidation occurs at anode whereas reduction occurs at cathode.
Step 4: Determine the positive and Negative Terminal
Positive Terminal: Electrode Q
Negative Terminal: Electrode P
Note: Anode is the negative terminal whereas cathode is the positive terminal.
Step 5: Determine the Direction of Flow of Electrons.
From electrode P to electrode Q.
Note: Electrons flow from the negative terminal to the positive terminal through
the wire.
Step 1: Identifying the Oxidising Agent and Reducing
Agent
Oxidising Agent: Bromine water
Reducing Agent: Iron(II) sulphate
Reaction Between Iron(II) Sulphate and Bromine Water
Step 2: Determining the Oxidation and Reduction Process
and Predicting the Observation
Oxidation
The reducing agent undergoes oxidation
Fe
2+
+ 2e --> Fe
3+
Observation: The green colour of iron(II) sulphate solution
turn brown.
Note: Iron(II) ion is green in colour whereas iron(III) ion is brown in colour.
Reduction
The oxidising agent undergoes reduction
Br
2
+ 2e --> 2Br
-
Observation: The yellow/orange colour of bromine water
become colourless.
Note: Bromine is yellow/orange in water whereas bromide is colourless.
Step 3: Identifying the Anode and Cathode
Electrode P: Anode
Electrode Q: Cathode
Note: Oxidation occurs at anode whereas reduction occurs at cathode.
Step 4: Determine the positive and Negative Terminal
Positive Terminal: Electrode Q
Negative Terminal: Electrode P
Note: Anode is the negative terminal whereas cathode is the positive terminal.
Step 5: Determine the Direction of Flow of Electrons.
From electrode P to electrode Q.
Note: Electrons flow from the negative terminal to the positive terminal through
the wire.
Corrosion as a Redox Reaction
1. Corrosion of metal = metal loses its electrons to form
positive ions.
Example
Corrosion of iron
Fe Fe
2+
+ 2e
Corrosion of Magnesium
Mg Mg
2+
+ 2e
2. The higher the position of a metal in the electrochemical
series, the more electropositive (reactive) the metal is.
The metal has a greater tendency to give away electrons to
form the metal ion, that is the metal is more easily
corroded.
3. For instance, the metal magnesium corrodes more easily
than copper because magnesium is more electropositive
than copper.
4. Corrosion of metal is a redox reaction as the metal
loses electrons to oxygen and water, which act as the
oxidising agents to receive the electrons.
5. Corrosion of iron is also called rusting.
Fe (s) Fe
2+
(aq) + 2e
6. Rusting of iron can only occur if both oxygen and water
are present.
Rusting of Iron
1. In the rusting of iron, iron acts as the reducing agent and
oxygen gas as the oxidising agent.
2. The process or rusting of iron can be explained by using
figure below.
3. When the surface of the iron is exposed to water droplets,
the center of the water droplets undergoes the process of
oxidation and is known as the anode.
4. The edge of the water droplets undergoes a process of
reduction and is known as the cathode. (The edge of the
water droplets acts as the cathode because of the
concentration of soluble oxygen is higher on the edge of
the water droplets than in the center.)
5. At the anode, the metal iron undergoes oxidation to form
the iron(II) ion with the loss of electrons.
Fe Fe
2+
+ 2e
6. Electrons that are free at the anode flow through the
metal iron to the cathode area where soluble oxygen in the
water accepts electrons to form hydroxide ions.
O
2
+ 2H
2
O + 4e 4OH
-
7. The iron(II) ions are then combines with the hydroxide ion
to form iron(II) hydroxide.
Fe
2+
+ OH- Fe(OH)
2
8. Iron(II) hydroxide is then oxidised by oxygen to form
iron(III) hydroxide.
4Fe(OH)
2
+ 2H
2
O + O
2
4Fe(OH)
3
9. The iron(III) hydroxide is then decomposed to form
hydrated iron(III) oxide, Fe
2
O
3
xH
2
O by oxygen in the
air.
4Fe(OH)
3
Fe
2
O
3
xH
2
O
10. The hydrated iron(III) oxide is brown in color and is
known as rust.
11. The overall equation for the rusting of iron is
4Fe + 3O
2
+2xH
2
O 2Fe
2
O
3
xH
2
O
Electrochemical Corrosion
1. The rusting of iron can be made faster if the iron is in contact
with a metal that is less electropositive than it. Corrosion of
metals such as this is known as electrochemical corrosion.
2. Electrochemical corrosion is a process where a metal corrodes
through losing of electrons (oxidation) to form cations in the
presence of an electrolyte when the metal is in contact with
another metal that is less electropositive than it.
3. The rusting of iron is made slower if the iron is in contact with
a metal that is more electropositive than it.
4. The higher the difference of the electropositivity between the
two metals, the faster the corrosion of the metals that occurs
on the metal which is more electropositive.
5. For example, iron rusts more easily when it pairs with copper
metal than when it pairs with tin. On the other hand, iron is less
likely to rust when it pairs with magnesium than when it pairs
with zinc.
Controlling Rusting
Steps to Control Rusting
The use of a metal which is less electropositive
1. The plating of iron with a thin layer of a metal which is less
electropositive such as tin, silver or copper will prevent the iron
underneath it to react with water and air, and so prevents the iron
from rusting.
2. However, the rusting of iron will occur faster if the protective
layer is scratched. This is because iron is more electropositive
than tin, silver or copper. The plating of iron by tin is used a lot in
the making of tinned food.
The use of a metal which is more electropositive
1. Metals which are more electropositive are used as a
sacrificial metal to prevent corrosion on metals which
are less electropositive. The metal which is more
electropositive corrodes and acts as the anode.
2. The less electropositive acts as the cathode and is
protected from corroding. This method is known as the
cathode protection or electrochemical protection.
Cover by paint, oil and grease
A layer of paint, oil/grease, or plastic that is used to cover
the surface of iron from contact with air and water in the
atmosphere. So, rusting can be avoided. For example,
1. Protection by a layer of paint usually is used for iron
and steel objects like cars, ships, bridges and other
things which do not undergo friction during use.
2. Protection by a layer of oil/grease is used for part of
machinery that move.
3. Protection by plastic is used for daily items at home
like clothes hangers and fencing.
4. Alloying of iron can prevent rusting. For example, when
iron is alloyed with chromium and nickel to form
stainless steel, the layer of chromium oxide that is
hard, strong and difficult to crack on the surface of
the iron alloy prevents the iron from rusting.
Series of Reactivity of Metals
1. When a metal reacts with oxygen to form a metal
oxide, a redox reaction occurs.
Metal + Oxygen Metal oxide
2. In this reaction,
Metal is oxidised to metal ions. The oxidation
number of the metal increases.
Oxygen is reduced to the oxide ion. The oxidation
number of oxygen decreases from 0 to -2.
Metal acts as a reducing agent while oxygen acts
as an oxidising agent.
3. Different metals burn in oxygen with different rate
depending on their differing activeness.
4. The more reactive metal towards oxygen, the
brighter and faster the combustion of the metal.
5. The arrangement of the metal according to the
tendency of reaction with oxygen to form the metal
oxide is known as the reactivity series of metals.
6. Figure above shows the experiment is conduct to
build the reactivity series of metal. Table below
shows the result of the experiment.
Metal Observation
Magnesium Combust quickly with a bright white shiny flame. A
white powder is formed.
Zinc A bright flame spread slowly. The powder produced is
yellow when hot, and white when it is cold.
Iron Embers spread slowly. A reddish brown powder is
formed.
Lead Red hot embers slowly. The powder produced is brown
when hot, and yellow when it is cold.
Copper Embers burn at a very slow rate. A black powder is
formed.
7. Oxygen that is used in combustion of other metals is
provides by heating solid potassium manganate(VII),
also can be obtained from
a) heating the mixture potassium chlorate (V) and
manganese (IV) oxide (catalyst)
2KClO
3
(s) 2KCl (s) + 3O
2
(g)
b) heating potassium nitrate
2KNO
3
(s) 2KNO
2
(s) + O
2
(g)
Position of Carbon in The Series of Reactivity of Metals
1. The position of carbon in the series of reactivity of
metals can be determined based on:
the ability of metals to take away oxygen from
carbon oxide, that is carbon dioxide.
the ability of carbon to take away oxygen from
metal oxides
Experiment 1
1. If the metal can take away oxygen
from carbon dioxide, then the metal
is more reactive than carbon.
Metal + carbon dioxide metal oxide
+ carbon
2. On the other hand, if the metal
cannot take away oxygen from carbon
dioxide, then the metal is less
reactive than carbon.
Example
2Mg (s) + CO
2
(g) 2MgO (s) + C (s)
Conclusion: Magnesium is more
reactive than carbon.
Experiment 2
1. If carbon can take away oxygen from
metal oxide, then the carbon is more
reactive than the metal.
Carbon + metal oxide metal +
carbon dioxide
2. On the other hand, if carbon cannot
take away oxygen from metal oxide,
then the carbon is less reactive than
the metal.
Example
C + 2CuO 2Cu + CO
2
Conclusion: Copper is less reactive
than carbon.
The chart below show the position of carbon in a reactivity
series.
Position of Hydrogen in The Reactivity Series of Metals
1. The position of hydrogen in the reactivity series of
metal can also be determined based on its ability to
displace oxygen from metal oxides.
2. If hydrogen is more reactive than a metal, it can
displace oxygen from metal oxide, and reduces the
metal oxide to its metal.
3. Hydrogen + metal oxide metal + water
4. Conversely, if hydrogen cannot remove oxygen from
metal oxide, hydrogen is less reactive than the metal in
the reactivity series of metal.
5. Hydrogen can reduce iron (II) oxide, Fe
2
O
3
to form
iron, Fe and water.
Fe
2
O
3
+ 3H
2
2Fe + 3H
2
O
6. However, hydrogen cannot reduce zinc oxide, ZnO.
7. Therefore hydrogen is below zinc but above iron in
the reactivity series of metals.
8. The diagram below shows the set-up of apparatus
used to determine the position of hydrogen in the
reactivity series of metal.
9. The chart below shows the position of carbon and
hydrogen in the reactivity series of metal base on their
ability to attract oxygen to form oxide.
Application of The Reactivity Series of Metals in The
Extraction of Metals
1. The method that is used in the extraction of metal
from its ore depends on the position of the metal in the
reactivity series of metals.
metals that are located lower than carbon in the
reactivity series of metals can be extracted using
the reduction of metal oxide by carbon in a blast
furnace.
metals that are located higher than carbon in the
reactivity series of metals are extracted by using
electrolytic melting of metal compounds.
2. The chart below give the method of extraction of
certain metals by referring to the reactivity series.
Extraction of Iron
1. Iron is extracted from its ore, that is hematite (Fe
2
O
3
)
and magnetite (Fe
3
O
4
) through reduction by carbon in
the form of carbon in a blast furnace.
2. The mixture of iron ore, carbon, and limestone is entered
into a blast furnace through the top of the furnace.
3. Hot air is then put in through the lower part of the
furnace
4. Limestone (calcium carbonate) is disintegrated by hot air
into calcium oxide and carbon dioxide gas.
CaCO
3
(s) CaO (s) + CO
2
(g)
5. Carbon also burns in hot air to produce carbon dioxide gas
C (s) + O
2
(g) CO
2
(g)
6. Carbon dioxide that is produced reacts with excess
carbon to produce carbon monoxide gas which is a type
of reducing agent.
CO
2
+ C 2CO
7. Carbon and carbon monoxide then reduces the iron ore to
melted iron which flows to the lower part of the furnace.
2Fe
2
O
3
(s) + 3C(s) 4Fe(s) + 3CO
2
(g)
Fe
2
O
3
(s) + 3CO(g) 2Fe(s) + 3CO
2
(g)
Fe
3
O
4
(s) + C(s) 3Fe(s) + 2CO
2
(g)
Fe
3
O
4
(s) + 4CO(g) 3Fe(s) + 4CO
2
(g)
8. In the blast furnace, calcium oxide that is produced from
the disintegration of calcium carbonate, reacts with
foreign matter such as sand (silicon dioxide) in the iron ore
to form slag.
CaO (s) + SiO
2
(s) CaSiO
3
(s) (slag)
9. The melted dross flows down to the bottom part of the
furnace and floats on the layer of melted iron.
10. The melted iron and dross then are taken out from the
furnace separately.
11. The melted iron is cooled in a mould to form cast iron,
while the dross is used to make the foundation for
roads and houses.
Extraction of Tin
1. Tin exists as stanum(IV) oxide, SnO
2
in the mineral
casiterite, that is tin. Tin contains a lot of foreign
matter such as sand, soil, sulphur, carbon and oil.
2. Firstly the tin ore is made concentrated by the
method of floatation. In this process, the ore is
crushed and shaken in oily water. The foreign matter
such as sand and soil drown while the tin ore sticks to
the oil and floats on the surface of the water.
3. The tin ore is then collected and roasted to take
away foreign matter such as carbon, sulphur and oil.
4. Lastly, the tin ore is mixed with carbon in the form of
charcoal and is heated in a blast furnace at a high
temperature.
5. Stanum(IV) oxide in the ore is reduced to tin by the
reducing agent carbon and carbon monoxide.
SnO
2
(s) + 2C(s) Sn (s) + 2CO (g)
SnO
2
(s) + C(s) Sn (s) + CO
2
(g)
SnO
2
(s) + 2CO(s) Sn (s) + 2CO
2
(g)
6. The melted tin that is formed collects at the base of
the furnace and then is channeled out into a mould to
form tin ingot.