Sauli Principles

F.
Sauli - Gas Detectors - KEK March 14, 2009

FUNDAMENTS - 1
TITLE
PRINCIPLES OF GAS DETECTORS
Fabio Sauli
TERA Foundation
CERN
CH-1211 Geneva Switzerland
Part 1: Fundaments
Part 2: Detectors
fabio.sauli@cern.ch
http://fabio.home.cern.ch/fabio/
http://gdd.web.cern.ch/GDD/
F. Sauli - Gas Detectors - KEK March 14, 2009
FUNDAMENTS - 2
BASIC BIBLIOGRAPHY
D.H. Wilkinson: I onization Chambers and Counters (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1950)
S.A. Korff: Electron and Nuclear Counters (Van Nostrand, 1955)
P. Rice-Evans: Spark, Streamer, Proportional and Drift Chambers (Richelieu, 1974)
F. Sauli: Principles of Operation of Multiwire Proportional and Drift Chambers (CERN 77-09, 1977)
Th. Ferbel, Editor: Techniques and Concepts of High-energy Physics (Plenum, 1983)
R.C. Fernow: I ntroduction to Experimental Particle Physics (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1986)
W.R. Leo: Techniques for Nuclear and Particle Physics Experiments (Springer, 1987)
C. Fabjan and J. Pilcher, ed.: I nstrumentation in Elementary Particle Physics (World Scientific, 1988)
C.F.G. Delaney and E.C. Finch: Radiation Detectors (Clarendon Press, 1992)
R. Gilmore: Single Particle Detection and Measurement (Taylor and Francis, 1992)
F. Sauli, ed.: I nstrumentation in High Energy Physics (World Scientific, 1992)
K. Grupen: Particle Detectors (Cambridge Monographs on Part. Phys. 1996)
K. Kleinknecht: Detectors for Particle Radiation (Cambridge Univ. Press 1998)
G.F. Knoll: Radiation Detection and Measurements, 3d Ed. (Wiley, 2000)
W. Blum, W. Riegler and L. Rolandi: Particle Detection with Drift Chambers, 2d Ed. (Springer 2008)
FUNDAMENTS - 3
ENERGY LOSS
DIFFERENTIAL ENERGY LOSS OF CHARGED PARTICES (Z=1) IN MATERIALS:
Expressed in MeV g
-1
cm
2
, the

differential
energy loss is equal within a factor of two
for all materials (except H
2
):

_(gcm
2
) = (gcm
3
) l(cm)

dE
d_
~ 1.5 MeV g
1
cm
2
: density
SEE:
Review of Particle Physics
Physics Letters B 667(2008)1-1340
http://pdgLive.lbl.gov

dE
d_
=
1
dE
dx
FUNDAMENTS - 4
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES
DIFFERENTIAL ENERGY LOSS, PRIMARY AND TOTAL IONIZATION FOR MINIMUM
IONIZING, Z=1 PARTICLES
NORMAL TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE (NTP: 20C, 1 ATMOSPHERE)
GAS Density
g cm
-2

E
X
eV
E
I
eV
W
I
eV
dE/dx
keV cm
-1

N
P
cm
-1
N
T
cm
-1
Ne 0.839 10
-3
16.7 21.6 30 1.45 13 50
Ar 1.66 10
-3
11.6 15.7 25 2.65 25 106
Xe 5.495 10
-3
8.4 12.1 22 6.87 41 312
CH
4
0.667 10
-3
8.8 12.6 30 1.61 37 54
C
2
H
6
1.26 8.2 11.5 26 2.91 48 112
i-C
4
H
10
2.49 10
-3
10.6 26 5.67 90 220
CO
2
1.84 10
-3
7 13.8 34 3.35 35 100
CF
4
3.78 10
-3
10 16 54 6.38 63 120

Z : atomic number ; A : atomic mass; : density
E
x
, E
i
: first excitation and ionization potentials
w
i
: average energy per ion pair
n
P
, n
T
: primary and total ion pairs per cm

(From various sources)
FUNDAMENTS - 5
PRIMARY IONIZATION
Minimum ionizing particles in argon NTP (n
P
: 25 cm
-1
)
s (mm) (%)
1 91.8
2 99.3
Distribution of the electron closest to an electrode:

A
1
n
(t) =ne
nwt

A
1
n
(x) =ne
nx
Coulomb interactions between the electric field of the particle and of
the molecules of the medium produce electron-ion pairs.
Multiple ionizing collisions follow Poissons statistics:
n: average
k: actual number

P
k
n
=
n
k
k!
e
n

c =1P
0
n
=1e
n
Detection efficiency:
Limit in time resolution of
proportional counters:
arrival at anode wire of the
closest electron.
ELECTRON-ION PAIR PRODUCTION
w: drift velocity (~ 5 cm s
-1
)

FUNDAMENTS - 6
SECONDARY AND TOTAL IONIZATION
Primary electrons can
further ionize the medium
producing local electron-
ion clusters. Occasionally,
the primary electron has
enough energy to produce
a long trail (delta
electron).
CLUSTER SIZE PROBABILITY IN ARGON
H. Fischle et al,
Nucl. I nstr. and Meth. A301 (1991) 202
Total number of ion pairs:
For minimum ionizing particles in Argon:
AE = 2.4 keV/cm w
i
= 26 eV
n
T
90 ion pairs/cm
The average ionization energy is about the same in all gases
and does not depend from energy and type of particles.
AE: energy loss
w
i
: average energy per ion pair

n
T
=
AE
w
i

n
T
n
P
~ 3
FUNDAMENTS - 7
ELECTRONS RANGE IN MATERIALS
Due to multiple scattering and ionizing
collisions, the penetration of electrons in
materials is shorter than the integrated
range along the path; the practical range is
the extrapolated thickness of material
absorbing all the electrons.
Practical range
Integrated path
H. Kanter, Phys. Rev. 121(1961)461

R =
r
R : range in cm
: density in g cm
-3

r = 10 E
1.7

r : practical range in g cm
-2
E : electron energy in keV
Fit to experimental data (light elements):
FUNDAMENTS - 8
APPROXIMATE EXPRESSION FOR ELECTRON RANGE
2 keV
180 m
A 2 keV delta electron in argon STP has a
practical range of ~ 200 m.
PRACTICAL ELECTRON RANGE IN GASES AT NTP
The asymmetry in released charge affects the
localization accuracy in detectors exploiting the
measurement of the center of gravity (Time
projection Chambers):
REAL COG
FUNDAMENTS - 9
HEED
CALCULATION OF PRIMARY IONIZATION AND ELECTRON RANGE
ELECTRON RANGE IN ARGON (STP):
PRIMARY CLUSTERS PER cm (STP):
I . B. Smirnov, Nucl. I nstr. and Meth. A554(2005)474
2 keV
HEED
140 m
http://consult.cern.ch/writeup/heed/
HEED:
FUNDAMENTS - 10
IONIZATION STASTISTICS - 1
WIDE ENERGY LOSS SPREAD (LANDAU DISTRIBUTION)
The statistics of the energy loss, with wide fluctuations and a long tail (due to delta electrons) requires
statistical analysis of hundreds of samples for determination of the average (as done in Time Projection
Chambers)
I . B. Smirnov, Nucl. I nstr. and Meth. A554(2005)474
FUNDAMENTS - 11
IONIZATION STATISTICS - 2
DRIFT
Coordinate deduced from drift time:
G. Charpak et al, Nucl. I nstr. and Meth. 167 (1979) 455
The presence of long range delta electrons can substantially
affect the localization accuracy:

F. Sauli, Nucl. I nstr. and Meth. 156 (1978) 147
CENTER OF GRAVITY
Coordinate from cathode induced charge
~5%
FUNDAMENTS - 12
ELECTRONS DRIFT AND DIFFUSION
DRIFT VELOCITY: DIFFUSION:
Drift velocity and diffusion of electrons vary in a wide range, depending the gas mixture:

o
x
=
2KT
e
x
E
1.5 mm
250 m

o
x
=
2c
k
e
x
E
c
k
: characteristic energy
x: drift distance
E: electric field
Thermal limit:
The diffusion at equal E/P depends on the inverse square root of pressure:

o
x
=
2c
k
e
P
E
x
P
FUNDAMENTS - 13
TRANSPORT THEORY OF ELECTRON DRIFT
S. Biagi, Nucl. I nstr. and Meth. A421(1999)234
MAGBOLTZ:
Montecarlo program to compute electron
drift and diffusion
Charge transport processes are determined by electron-molecule cross sections:
http://rjd.web.cern.ch/rjd/cgi-bin/cross
FUNDAMENTS - 14
MIXTURES
Addition to a noble gas of even small percentages of a molecular gas has dominant effect on the
electron cross section:
CO
2
100
CO
2
10
Ar 100
CO
2
2
FUNDAMENTS - 15
DRIFT VELOCITY
(Computed with MAGBOLTZ)
ELECTRON DRIFT VELOCITY IN ARGON-METHANE MIXTURES:
FUNDAMENTS - 16
LONGITUDINAL AND TRANSVERSE DIFFUSION
At low electric fields, the diffusion is symmetric. At
moderate to high fields however the longitudinal diffusion
(in the direction of drift) is reduced.
Drift E Field
o
T

o
L

In drift chambers, the dispersive factor is the longitudinal diffusion (measured time in the direction of
the electric field)
In time projection chambers, the dispersive factor is the transverse diffusion (center of gravity of
charge induced on pad rows)
TRANSVERSE DIFFUSION: LONGITUDINAL DIFFUSION:
FUNDAMENTS - 17
MAGNETIC FIELD

B
E
u
B
w
B
The drifting electrons swarm is rotated by an angle u
B
in
the plane perpendicular to E and B; the magnetic drift
velocity is w
B
w
0
E
B
u
B
w
B

tanu
B
=et

w
B
=
E
B
et
1+e
2
t
2

w
B
= w
0

o
L
= o
0

o
T
=
o
0
1+e
2
t
2
t : mean collision time

e=eB/m Larmor frequency
Drift velocity
unchanged
The transverse
diffusion is reduced

E = B

w =
e
m
t
1+e
2
t
2
E +et
E xB
B
+e
2
t
2
B (E - B )
B
2

(

(
Friction force theory

r
E
r
B
r
B
s
L
T
s
w
B

E

r
E
r
B
FUNDAMENTS - 18
TRANSVERSE DIFFUSION IN MAGNETIC FIELD
IN SOME GASES THE TRANSVERSE DIFFUSION IS STRONGLY REDUCED
Improves the precision of the projected coordinate measurement in Time Projection Chambers
200 V/cm

r
E
r
B
600 m
50 m
FUNDAMENTS - 19
ELECTRON ATTACHMENT
OXYGEN ATTACHMENT COEFFICIENT:
ELECTRONS SURVIVING AFTER 20 CM
DRIFT (E = 200 V/cm):
Electrons are lost by radiative or non-radiative capture to resulting in the formation of negative ions: e
+ a -> A
-
(+hv). The attachment cross section is gas and energy-dependent, therefore strongly depends
on the gas composition and electric field. For equal amount of oxygen contamination, capture losses are
much more severe in cold gases. In the example, a 5% loss is observed for 20 cm drift for 15 ppm of
oxygen in A-CO
2
or 800 ppm in Ar-CH
4
.
FUNDAMENTS - 20
EXCITATION AND CHARGE MULTIPLICATION
CROSS SECTIONS AT HIGH ELECTRIC
FIELDS:
I ONI ZATI ON
15.7 eV
EXCI TATI ON 11.6 eV
ELECTRONS ENERGY DISTRIBUTION IN
ARGON AT INCREASING FIELDS:
E
i
=15.7 eV E
x
=10.6 eV
Electrons on the high side of the energy distribution reach the excitation and ionization levels,
inducing inelastic collisions.
FUNDAMENTS - 21
INELASTIC COLLISION PROCESSES IN MIXTURES
Radiative recombination: A
+
+ B -> AB + hv
Radiative capture: e + M -> M
-
+ hv
Dissociative capture: e + AB -> AB
-
-> A + B
-

Three-body collision: e + A = B -> A
-
+ B
Excimer formation and decay: A
*
+ A -> A
*
2
-> A + A + hv
Penning effect: A
*
+ B -> A + B
*
+ e [E
i
(B) < E
x
(A)]
MAJOR PROCESSES:
J .Meek and J . D. Cragg, Electrical
Breakdown of Gases (Clarendon, 1953)
Radiative processes with the emission of a
short wavelength photon can induce various
kinds of secondary effects, as internal
reconversion to charge on of molecules with
low ionization potential or emission of
photoelectron at cathodes. Addition to noble
gases of molecular additives reduce these
effects directly, quenching the emissions, or
by absorption.
FUNDAMENTS - 22
PHOTON EMISSION SPECTRA IN NOBLE GASES
IMAGING CHAMBERS
SCINTILLATING PROPORTIONAL COUNTERS
TEA
TMAE
Ar
Kr
Xe
100 200 300 400 500 600
Wavelength (nm)
0
0.2
0.4
0.8
0.6
1.0
Relative light yield
10 5 4 3 2
Energy (eV)
15
The emission spectra after excitation and dimers formation of noble gases are peaked in the far
ultraviolet. The low ionization potential vapors used in Cherenkov ring imaging detectors, as
Triethylamine (TEA) and Tetrakis-dimethylamino ethylene (TMAE), added to noble gases, act as
internal wavelength shifters and result in the emission of photons at longer wavelengths:
FUNDAMENTS - 23
COLLISIONAL IONIZATION: TOWNSEND COEFFICIENT
Mean free path for ionization:

=
1
No
N: molecules/cm
3

First Townsend coefficient:

o =
1
Ionizing collisions/cm
TOWNSEND COEFFICIENT FOR NOBLE
GASES:
Electrons acquiring enough energy from the field can have ionizing collisions with molecules, resulting in
with creation of an electron-ion pair.
TOWNSEND COEFFICIENT FOR Ar-CH
4
:
(MAGBOLTZ)
FUNDAMENTS - 24
AVALANCHE MULTIPLICATION IN UNIFORM FIELD

n(x) =n
0
e
o x
Multiplication factor or Gain:

dn = nodx

M( x) =
n
n
0
= e
o x
l
E
x
Ions
Electrons
VISUALIZATION OF AVALANCHES
COMBINING A CLOUD CHAMBER
WITH AN AVALANCHE CHAMBER:
H. Raether, Electron Avalanches and
Breakdown in Gases (Butterworth 1964)
Maximum Avalanche size before discharge (Raether limit):
Q
MAX
10
7
e
Incremental increase of the number of electrons in the
avalanche:
At each mean free path for ionization, electrons create an
electron-ion pair; results an exponential increase of charge,
with fast electrons on the front and slow ions left behind.
FUNDAMENTS - 25
SIGNAL INDUCTION ON ELECTRODES
The multiplying and moving charges in the
avalanche induce signals on the electrodes.
The incremental charge induction due to electrons
after a path s:
Integrating over s:

dq
= en
0
e
os
ds
s
0

q
(s) =
en
0
os
0
(e
os
1) ~
en
0
os
0
e
os
=
en
0
os
0
e
ow
t
and the corresponding current :

i
(t) =
dq
dt
=
en
0
w
s
0
e
ow
t
=
en
0
T
e
ow
t
The current signal induced by ions is given by:

i
+
(t ) =
en
0
T
+
e
ow
t
e
ow
*
t
|
\

|
.
| 0 st s T

i
+
(t ) =
en
0
T
+
e
os
e
ow
*
t
|
\

|
.
| T
s t sT
+

1
w
*
=
1
w
+
+
1
w
J . Townsend, Electrons in Gases (Hutchinson 1947)

Fast electron signal
Slow ion tail
FUNDAMENTS - 26
AVALANCHE STATISTICS IN UNIFORM FIELDS
In constant electric field, the probability of an avalanche started by a single electron to have a size N is
given by Furrys law:

P(N) =
1
N
e
N
N

N =e
os
: average multiplication factor
on the gap s
H. Genz, Nucl. I nstr. and Meth. 112(1973)83
The maximum probability is for N=0 (no
multiplication!).
For an avalanche started by n electrons:

P(n, N) =
N
N
|
\

|
.
|
n1
e
N
N
(n 1)!
The Furry distribution has a variance equal to
the average:

o
N
N
=1
SIZE DISTRIBUTIONS FOR AVALANCHES
STARTED BY 1, 2,... 10 ELECTRONS:

N N

P
N
N
,n
|
\

|
.
|
FUNDAMENTS - 27
AVALANCHE SIZE DISTRIBUTION
At large gains (high fields) the
avalanche distribution is described
by a Polya function:
AVALANCHE SIZE
DISTRIBUTIONS AT
INCREASING FIELDS:
H. Sclumbohm,
Zeit. Physik 151(1958)563
The shape of the single electron avalanche distribution has
a major relevance in determining the energy resolution of
proportional counters
A peaked single electron pulse height distribution provides
efficient detection (RICH)
The relative variance of the Polya
distribution is:

o
N
N
|
\

|
.
|
2
=
1
N
+
1
1 k
=
1
N
+ b ~ b
For k=0 the distributions reduce to
a Furry law.
POLYA DISTRIBUTIONS:

P(z) =
(k +1)
k+1
I(k +1)
z
k
e
(k+1)z

z =
N
N
for k integer

I(k +1) =(k)!
FUNDAMENTS - 28
PROPORTIONAL COUNTER
Thin anode wire of radius a, coaxial with a cylindrical cathode of radius b
Electric field:
Cathode radius b
Anode radius a

E(r) =
CV
0
2tc
0
1
r

C=
2tc
0
ln b a
( )

V(r) =
CV
0
2tc
0
ln
r
a
capacitance per unit length
Potential:

V(b) =V
0

V(a) =0
a
DRIFT AND COLLECTION REGION
AVALANCHE REGION
THRESHOLD FIELD FOR
MULTIPLICATION
DISTANCE FROM CENTER
E
L
E
C
T
R
I
C

F
I
E
L
D

FUNDAMENTS - 29
PROPORTIONAL COUNTER: AVALANCHE DEVELOPMENT
ln M
Voltage
Attachment
Collection
Multiplication
Streamer
Breakdown
IONIZATION
CHAMBER
PROPORTIONAL
COUNTER
Saturation
n
1

n
2

+
+
-
+
-
+
+
+
+
+
+
GAIN CHARACTERISTICS:
At increasing fields, to a region of
charge collection (ionization chamber)
follows a region of multiplication with
the detected charge proportional to the
initial ionization. At higher voltage
follow a region of limited
proportionality, saturation (with the
output charge independent from initial
ionization), streamer formation and
breakdown.
Electrons approach the anode; on reaching
a critical value of field strength, they start
an avalanche multiplication, continuing
until the front reaches the wire. Ions are
left behind in a characteristic drop shape.
The extent by which the avalanche
surrounds the wire depends on gas,
geometry and gain.
FUNDAMENTS - 30
PROPORTIONAL COUNTERS: INDUCED SIGNALS
For an avalanche starting at a small distance from the anode, the electron and ion contributions to the
induced charge are:

q
=
Q
V
0
dV
dr
a
a+
} dr =
QC
2tc
0
ln
a+
a

q
+
=
Q
V
0
dV
dr
a+
b
} dr =
QC
2tc
0
ln
b
a+
q(t)
0 100 200 300 400 500
t (s)
Q
T
+

INDUCED CHARGE:
FAST SIGNAL DIFFERENTIATION:
0 100 200 300 400 500
q(t)
300 ns
100 ns
50 ns
t(ns)
Total induced signal on anode:

q = q
+q
+
=
QC
2tc
0
ln
b
a
= Q (+Q on cathode)
Ratio of electron and ion signals:

q
q
+
=
ln(a+) ln a
lnbln(a +)
~1% for typical geometry

q(t ) =
QC
2tc
0
ln 1+

+
CV
0
2tc
0
a
2
t
|
\

|
.
|
|
=
QC
2tc
0
ln 1+
t
t
0
|
\

|
.
|

T
+
=
tc
0
(b
2
a
2
)
+
CV
0
q(T
+
) = Q
Time development of the signal on anode:
Total ions drift time:
FUNDAMENTS - 31
PROPORTIONAL COUNTERS: ENERGY RESOLUTION
The energy resolution is a convolution of ionization
statistics, avalanche spread and electronics noise:
GAIN
R
E
S
O
L
U
T
I
O
N

%

NOISE
IONIZATION
AVALANCHE
TOTAL

o
E
E
|
\

|
.
|
2
=
o
N
N
|
\

|
.
|
2
+
o
M
M
|
\

|
.
|
2
+
o
el
M
|
\

|
.
|
2
For soft X-rays:

o
N
2
= FN
F: Fano factor

o
M
M
|
\

|
.
|
2
=
1
N
o
A
A
|
\

|
.
|
2
Gain variance:

o
A
A
Single electron
avalanche variance

o
E
E
|
\

|
.
|
2
=
1
N
(F + b)
Ar 0.17 0.19
GAS F(calc) F(exp)
Xe <0.17
Ne+0.5%Ar 0.05
Ar-CH
4
0.17 0.19
PULSE HEIGHT SPECTRUM FOR 5.9 keV
X-RAYS IN P10 (Ar-CH
4
90-10):
for a Polya avalanche distribution

o
A
A
~ b
fwhm 1.3 keV

1.3
5.9
= 0.22 fwhm
o
E
E
~ 9%
For 5.9 keV X-rays (N~220):
for b=1

o
E
E
~ 7%
FUNDAMENTS - 32
SCINTILLATING PROPORTIONAL COUNTERS
In noble gases, at moderate electric fields before multiplication, there is a large emission of scintillation
photons. In proportional scintillation counters the detection of these photons eliminate the dispersion due
to the avalanches and achieve the best energy resolution (close to the statistical)
SPHERICAL ANODE COUNTER:
CHARGE AND LIGHT YIELD VS VOLTAGE:
A.J .P.L. Policarpo et al, Nucl. I nstr. and Meth. 102(1972)337
CHARGE
LIGHT
Xe 99.95%
1030 torr

o
E
E
|
\

|
.
|
2
=
F
N
FUNDAMENTS - 33
ENERGY RESOLUTION OF SCINTILLATION COUNTERS
Xe 99.95%
1030 torr
55
Fe X-RAYS (5.898 keV):

FWHM 500 eV

R =
FWHM
E
= 8.5%
o
E
E
= 3.6%
Primary statistics limit:

o
E
E
=
F
N
= 2.8%
A.J .P.L. Policarpo et al,
Nucl. I nstr. and Meth. 102(1972)337
241
Am ENERGY SPECTRUM:

H. E. Palmer, I EEE Trans. Nucl. Sci.NS-22(1975)100
Fluorescence analysis
X-Ray Spectroscopy
FUNDAMENTS - 34
IMAGING CHAMBERS
The light emission in avalanches has been
exploited to detect tracks with simple optical
recorders (solid state cameras).

The UV light emission in the avalanches is
converted into the visible using an internal
wavelength shifter (TMAE gas) or a thin WLS
on the semi-transparent anode.
DRIFT VOLUME
AVALANCHE
MULTIPLICATION
M. Suzuki et al, Nucl. I nstr. and Meth. A263(1988)237
COSMIC RAY ACTIVITY IN A 10x10x10
cm
3
SENSITIVE VOLUME:
FUNDAMENTS - 35
3-D OPTICAL IMAGING CHAMBER
K. Miernik et al, Nucl. I nstr. and Meth. A581(2007)194
Optical imaging chamber with
recording of the projected image
using a CCD camera, and the time
profile of the emitted light with a
photomultiplier.
Simultaneous recording of
projection and time development of
the emission permits a 3-D
reconstruction of tracks.

Tested with radioactive ion beams
stopping in the gas volume.
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Sauli - Gas Detectors - KEK March 14, 2009

J . Townsend, Electrons in Gases (Hutchinson 1947)

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