Common Sensing Techniques

for Reactive Robots

By Safa Hamdare
Outline
Logical sensors
Designing a Sensor Suite
Types of a sensor
Attributes of a sensor
Proprioceptive Sensors
GPS
Proximity Sensors
Sonar, Infrared, CCD Cameras, Stereo camera
pairs, Light stripers, Laser
University Asked Questions
1. List the sensors used for reactive robots and explain
the GPS system. (Dec 2010, Dec 2012, June 2013)
2. Write short note on Proximity Sensor and representin
g knowledge in an uncertain domain. (Dec 2010)
3. What is proximity sensor? Explain Sonar Sensor?
(Dec 2011)
4. Explain steps in designing reactive behavioural syste
m. (Dec 2010 Dec 2011)
5. What are the attributes of Sensor? List different type
s of Sensors? (June 2011)
6. Describe Infrared Sensor and Sonar Sensor? (June 20
13)

Logical Sensors
A unit of sensing or module (supplies a particular
percept).
It consists of the signal processing and the software
processing.
Can be easily implemented as a perceptual schema.
Different sensors/perceptual schemas can produce the
same percept - motor schema doesnt care!
Behavior can pick whats available
Example: ring of IRs, ring of sonar's
If sensor fails, then another can be substituted
without deliberation or explicit modeling
Conflicts in allocation can be solved by using logical
sensors (deliberation is required to assign)
Active vs. Passive (Example)

1. Active sensors
Sensor emits some form of
energy and then measures the
impact as a way of
understanding the environment
- Ex. Ultrasonics, laser

2. Passive sensors
Sensor receives energy already
in the environment
- Ex. Camera
Passive consume less energy,
but often signal-noise
problems
Active often have restricted
environments
Stereo
Camera
pair
Thermal
sensor
Laser
ranger
Sonars
Bump
sensor
Behavioral Sensor Fusion
Sensor fusion is a broad term used for any process that
combines information from multiple sensors into a single
percept.
In some cases multiple sensors are used when a particular sensor is too
imprecise or noisy to give reliable data. Adding a second sensor can
give another vote for the percept.

When a sensor leads the robot to believe that a percept is present,
but it is not, the error is called a false positive.



The robot has made a positive identification of percept, but it was
false. Likewise, an error where the robot misses a percept is known as
a false negative.
False positive
False negative
Sensing Model
11
Sensor/Transducer Behavior Action
Sensing in Reactive Paradigm
Each behavior has its own dedicated sensing. One behavior
literally does not know what another behavior is doing or
perceiving.
Behavior
Behavior
Behavior
Perceptual
Schemas
M o t o r
Schemas
Behavioral Sensor Fusion:
-1.sensor fission
This sensor fission in part as a take off on the
connotations of the word fusion in nuclear physics. In
nuclear fusion- energy is created by forcing atoms and
particles together, while in fission- energy is creating by
separating atoms and particles.

Perceptual
S c h e m a
M o t o r
Schema
Behavioral Sensor Fusion:
-2. action-oriented sensor fusion
This type of sensor fusion is called action-oriented
sensor fusion to emphasize that the sensor data is being
transformed into a behavior-specific representation in
order to support a particular action, not for constructing
a world model.

Perceptual
S c h e m a
M o t o r
Schema
Behavioral Sensor Fusion:
-3. sensor fashion
Sensor fashion, an alterative name intended to imply the
robot was changing sensors with changing circumstances
just as people change styles of clothes with the seasons.
Designing a Sensor Suite
-Types/ Categories of Sensors

values internal to the system (robot),
e.g. battery level, wheel position, joint angle
used for observation of the environments, objects
Designing a Sensor Suite
-Attributes of a sensor
1. Field of view, range : does it cover the right area?
2. Accuracy & repeatability : how well does it work?
3. Responsiveness in target domain : how well does it work
for this domain?
4. Power consumption : may suck the batteries, dry too fast
5. Reliability : can be a bit flakey, vulnerable
6. Size : always a concern!
7. Computational Complexity : can you process it fast enough?
8. Interpretation Reliability : do you believe what its saying?
Should be considered for the entire sensing suite :
1. Simplicity- Simple sensors which have straightforward hardware and
operating principles are more desirable than sensors which are
complex and requires constant maintenance.
2. Modularity- In order to reconfigure a sensor suite (add new sensors,
remove ones that aren't appropriate for the task), designer could
remove one sensor and/or its perceptual schema without impacting
any other sensing capability.
3. Redundancy In military application, it is imperative that the robot
functions correctly, since it would put people at risk to try to retrieve
the robot and fix it.
- Physical Redundancy
(there are several instances of physically identical sensors on the
robot)
- Logical Redundancy
(another sensor using a different sensing modality can produce the
same percept or releaser)

Designing a Sensor Suite
-Attributes of a sensor suite
Sensor Categories
1. Proprioceptive
Global Positioning System(GPS)
Inertial Navigation System (INS)
Compass
2. Exteroceptive
Proximity Sensor
SONAR Sensor
INFRA RED Sensor

A very precise positioning system
GPS systems work by receiving signals from satellites
orbiting the Earth.
GPS does not work indoors(environmental limit)
Satellite Based
24 satellites
20,200 km high orbit

Proprioceptive Sensors(2)
-Global Positioning System (GPS)


BUT!
Although it is a very precise geogr
aphic positioning system
It is very easy to get yourself into trouble
Why?
Because you (probably) dont understand
how it works
And that leads to garbage
Characteristics of GPS
Free
Precise
Reliable
Anytime & anywhere
All weather
Unlimited user capacity
Almost! Accurate
(precise)
Characteristics of GPS
Segments of GPS
1. Space Segment
A constellation of 24 satellites
2. Control Segment
A network of earth-based
facilities
3. Users Segment
Source:Trimble
Segments of GPS
Source:Trimble
1. Space Segment
A constellation
of 24 satellites
GPS Monitoring Station
How GPS Works
Uses measurements from 4+ satellites
Distance = travel time x speed of light
Source:Trimble
Determining GPS Position
Suppose the distance from Satellite
A to our position is 11,000 miles
At this point we could be located
anywhere on the specified sphere
Satellite A
+
Next, let us take another measurement
from a second satellite, Satellite B
Satellite B
+
Now our position is narrowed down to the
intersection of theses two sphere
Satellite C
+
Determining GPS Position
Satellite A
Satellite B
+
+
Taking another measurement
from a 3rd satellite narrows our
position down even further, to
the two points
So by ranging from 3 satellites we can narrow
our position to just two points in space
These points are located where
the 3rd sphere cuts through the
intersection of first two spheres

Satellite C
+
How do we decide which one is our true
location?
Satellite A
Satellite B
+
+
We could make a 4th measurement
from another satellite to determine
the true point
However, GPS receivers use a 4th satellite to precisely
locate our position
We can eliminate one of the two
points that gives a ridiculous
answer
The ridiculous point may be too
far from the earth
OR
Determining GPS Position
How accurate is GPS?
Depends on some variables
Design of receiver
Relative positions of satellites, technic
ally known as PDOP (Position dilut
ion of precision)
Post processing
Time spent on measurement
Common use of GPS
A. GI S data collection & mapping
B. Navigation
C. Recreation
GPS for Navigation
GPS for Navigation
GPS in PDA
Are getting popular
in car
Comes with voice
guidance
GPS in recreation
GPS in Farmland
Proximity Sensors(1)
-Sonar or ultrasonic

Sonar refers to any system for using
sound to measure range. (use a sonar for
underwater vehicles ).
The process of finding your location
based upon sonar is echolocation.

Ultrasonic sensors generate high
frequency sound waves and evaluate
the echo which is received back by the
sensor. Sensors calculate the time
interval between sending the signal and
receiving the echo to determine the
distance to an object.

Ultrasonic is possibly the most common
sensor on commercial robots operating.
Polaroid Ultrasonic Transducer
SONAR: RELIABILITY
Blind zone is when an
echo arrives before the
transducer is ready to receive
and objects are not detected
reliably.

Sensor readings vary
based upon:
1. Distance to object(s).
2. Angle that object makes
with respect to sensor
axis.
3. Direction that objects
enter sensing range.
Proximity Sensors(1)
- Three problems with sonar range readings

Foreshortening
Cross-talk
Specular reflection
SONAR: 1. Foreshortening
Sonar has a 30 degree field of view, this means that
sound is being broadcast in a 30 degree wide cone.
If the surface is not perpendicular to the transducer,
one side of the cone will reach the object first and
return a range first.
Most software assumes the reading is along the axis of
the sound wave.
If it uses the reading(which is really the reading for 15
degree) the robot will respond to wrong data.
SONAR: 2. Specular
Reflection
Sensitivity to obstacle angle
can result in improper range
readings.
When the beam angle of
incidence falls below a certain
critical angle specular reflection
errors occur.
Sonar: 3. Crosstalk
Using multiple fixed sensors can lead to crosstalk
Crosstalk is interference in which echoes emitted
from one sensor are detected by others.
Sonar: 3. Crosstalk Solution
Crosstalk signals are impossible to detect unless signals
are unique (coded)
Crosstalk can be reduced by carefully timing the emitting
of signals
Emit from one and wait for a time interval
Emit from a select few that may not have interference
Emit adjacent sensors at different frequencies
Power consumption
High
Reliability
Lots of problems
Size
Size of a Half dollar, board is similar size and can be creatively
packaged
Computational Complexity
Low; doesnt give much information
Interpretation Reliability
poor

Proximity Sensors(1)
- Attributes of ultrasonic

They emit near-infrared energy and measure whether any
significant amount of the IR light is returned.
These often fail in practice because the light emitted is often
washed out by bright ambient lighting or is absorbed by
dark materials (i.e., the environment has too much noise).
Proximity Sensors(2)
- Infrared ray (IR)

Sharp GP2Y0A21YK
Proximity Sensors(2):
INFRARED RANGE SENSORS
Emit light from Infrared LED
Light is reflected from object
Receiver measures strength of
light returned
Range depends on object
properties
Shiny objects (metal) are
difficult to detect
Cannot detect glass
White/black surfaces report
different ranges

Proximity Sensors(2):
INFRARED RANGE SENSORS


Thank you