Applied Physics

GS-122

 Instructor
Atif M.Khokhar
Assistant Professor
 Main Contents
• Final Lecture of Atomic Structure

• Atomic Number and Atomic Mass

• Isotopes
• de Broglie Waves
• Atomic Spectra

Lecture delivered @ HITEC UNIVERSITY, Taxila, by Atif M. Khokhar

 Atomic structure

• When we finish this part you will be able to;

• Define atomic number & mass number and

isotopes
• Under stand Wave nature of matter
• Describe Wave Model about atom
• Explain Atomic line spectrum

Lecture delivered @ HITEC UNIVERSITY, Taxila, by Atif M. Khokhar

 HELIUM ATOM
Shell
proton

+
N
-
+
- N

electron neutron

What do these particles consist of?

Home Work
Lecture delivered @ HITEC UNIVERSITY, Taxila, by Atif M. Khokhar
 Atomic Structure

Particle Charge

proton + ve charge

neutron No charge

electron -ve charge

Lecture delivered @ HITEC UNIVERSITY, Taxila, by Atif M. Khokhar

 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

He
4 Atomic mass /Mass no.
“A”
the number of protons and
neutrons in an atom

2 Atomic No.
“Z”
the number of protons in an atom

number of electrons = number of protons

Lecture delivered @ HITEC UNIVERSITY, Taxila, by Atif M. Khokhar

 Isotopes
The Isotopes of the element have the Same Atomic no. “Z” but
different Mass no. “A”

mass number (m) 1

atomic number (z) 1 H

1 proton
1 electron

Lecture delivered @ HITEC UNIVERSITY, Taxila, by Atif M. Khokhar

 Isotopes

mass number (m) 2

atomic number (z) 1 H

1 proton, 1 neutron
1 electron

Lecture delivered @ HITEC UNIVERSITY, Taxila, by Atif M. Khokhar

 Isotopes

mass number (m) 12

atomic number (z) 6 C

6 protons, 6 neutrons
6 electrons

Lecture delivered @ HITEC UNIVERSITY, Taxila, by Atif M. Khokhar

 Isotopes

mass number (m) 13

atomic number (z) 6 C

6 protons, 7 neutrons
6 electrons

Lecture delivered @ HITEC UNIVERSITY, Taxila, by Atif M. Khokhar

 Quantum or Wave Mechanics
• Light has both wave & particle
properties
• de Broglie (1924) proposed
that all moving objects have
wave properties.
L. de Broglie • For light: E = h = hc / 
(1892-1987) • For particles: E = mc2 (Einstein)
Therefore, mc = h / 
and for particles
(mass)x(velocity) = h / 

 for particles is called the de Broglie wavelength

Lecture delivered @ HITEC UNIVERSITY, Taxila, by Atif M. Khokhar
 WAVE properties of matter
Electron diffraction with
electrons of 5-200 keV
- Davisson & Germer 1927

Na Atom Laser beams

 = 15 micometers (m)

The new atom laser emits pulses of coherent atoms,

or atoms that "march in lock-step." Each pulse
contains several million coherent atoms.

Lecture delivered @ HITEC UNIVERSITY, Taxila, by Atif M. Khokhar

 Quantum or Wave Mechanics

Schrodinger applied idea of e- behaving

as a wave to the problem of electrons
in atoms.
Solution to WAVE EQUATION gives set
of mathematical expressions called

E. Schrodinger
WAVE FUNCTIONS, 
1887-1961 Each describes an allowed energy state of
an e-Quantization introduced naturally.

Lecture delivered @ HITEC UNIVERSITY, Taxila, by Atif M. Khokhar

 de Broglie Waves

• One of Bohr’s postulates was the angular

momentum of the electron is quantized, but
there was no explanation why the restriction
occurred
• de Broglie assumed that the electron orbit
would be stable (i.e., allowed) only if it
contained an integral number of electron
wavelengths

Lecture delivered @ HITEC UNIVERSITY, Taxila, by Atif M. Khokhar

 de Broglie Waves in the Hydrogen Atom

• In this example, three

complete wavelengths are
contained in the
circumference of the orbit
• In general, the
circumference must equal
some integer number of
wavelengths
– 2  r = n λ ; n = 1, 2, …

Lecture delivered @ HITEC UNIVERSITY, Taxila, by Atif M. Khokhar

 de Broglie Waves in the Hydrogen Atom,
cont.
• 2r = n λ
• λ =h/(mev)
• 2r =nh/(mev)
• mevr = nh/(2) [angular momentum of
circular orbit]
• This is precisely the quantization of angular
momentum condition imposed by Bohr

Lecture delivered @ HITEC UNIVERSITY, Taxila, by Atif M. Khokhar

 Quantum Mechanics and the Hydrogen
Atom
• One of the first great achievements of quantum
mechanics was the solution of the wave equation for
the hydrogen atom
• The significance of quantum mechanics is that the
quantum numbers and the restrictions placed on
their values arise directly from the mathematics and
not from any assumptions made to make the theory
agree with experiments

Lecture delivered @ HITEC UNIVERSITY, Taxila, by Atif M. Khokhar

 Atomic Spectra

18
Lecture
Lecture delivered
delivered @
@ HITEC
HITEC UNIVERSITY,
UNIVERSITY, Taxila,
Taxila, by
by Atif
Atif M.
M. Khokhar
Khokhar
Atomic Spectra - Since the 19th century, it had
been known that when elements are heated until
they emit light (glow) they emit that light only at
discrete frequencies, giving a line spectrum.
-

+
Hydrogen
Gas Line Spectrum

Lecture
Lecture delivered
delivered @
@ HITEC
HITEC UNIVERSITY,
UNIVERSITY, Taxila,
Taxila, by
by Atif
Atif M.
M. Khokhar
Khokhar
 Line spectra cannot be explained by the classical
physics.
We explain this phenomenon by utilizing two new
concepts:
1. The particle nature of light (photons)
2. Energy levels: An atom can only have
certain discrete energy values- we say that
their energy is quantized. These energy values are
called energy levels.

Lecture
Lecture delivered
delivered @
@ HITEC
HITEC UNIVERSITY,
UNIVERSITY, Taxila,
Taxila, by
by Atif
Atif M.
M. Khokhar
Khokhar
 When an electron makes a transition from a higher energy level to a
lower energy level ,the difference in the energy is emitted out as a
photon . Each transition produces a photon of a certain energy and
this appears as a line of certain wavelength on the spectrum. These
lines constitute the Emission spectrum

Lecture
Lecture delivered
delivered @
@ HITEC
HITEC UNIVERSITY,
UNIVERSITY, Taxila,
Taxila, by
by Atif
Atif M.
M. Khokhar
Khokhar
 When white light passes through a gas, the gas absorbs light of
certain wavelengths that are present in its emission spectrum. The
resulting spectrum has some colors (wavelengths ) missing replaced
by dark lines. This is called the Absorption spectrum.

Lecture
Lecture delivered
delivered @
@ HITEC
HITEC UNIVERSITY,
UNIVERSITY, Taxila,
Taxila, by
by Atif
Atif M.
M. Khokhar
Khokhar
Lecture
Lecture delivered
delivered @
@ HITEC
HITEC UNIVERSITY,
UNIVERSITY, Taxila,
Taxila, by
by Atif
Atif M.
M. Khokhar
Khokhar
Hydrogen spectrum

2/6/2008 24
Lecture
Lecture delivered
delivered @
@ HITEC
HITEC UNIVERSITY,
UNIVERSITY, Taxila,
Taxila, by
by Atif
Atif M.
M. Khokhar
Khokhar
Hydrogen Spectrum

Orbital dia

25
Lecture
Lecture delivered
delivered @
@ HITEC
HITEC UNIVERSITY,
UNIVERSITY, Taxila,
Taxila, by
by Atif
Atif M.
M. Khokhar
Khokhar