Theories of child Psychology

and emotional Development

Under the able guidance of:

Dr. Ritu Jindal Submitted by:
Dr. Jasvir Shergill Ravi Sher Singh Toor
Dr. Sandeep Mahajan M.D.S II
Dr. Rohini Dua
Major talking points
Basic outline.
Theories of psychology, why?
Classification of different theories and
thinkers of child psychology
Sigmond freuds psychoanalytic theory
Basic outline
Child Psychology: Is the science that deals with the
mental power or interaction between the conscious and
sub conscious element in a child.

Behaviour Management: (Wright,1975)The means by
which dental health team effectively and efficiently
performs treatment for a child and simultaneously
instills a positive dental attitude in the child
Theories of Psychology, Why ?
Much of what we know about human thought and
behavior has emerged thanks to various psychology
theories.
For example, behavioral theories demonstrated how
conditioning can be used to learn new information
and behaviors.
Psychology students typically spend a great deal of
time studying these different theories. Some theories
have fallen out of favor, while others remain widely
accepted, but all have contributed tremendously to
our understanding of human thought and behavior.
By learning more about these theories, you can gain
a deeper and richer understanding of child
psychology's past, present and future.
Classification of child development
theories
Psychoanalytic child development
theories
Cognitive child development theories
Behavioural child development theories
Social child development theories



Theories of child
development
Psychoanalytic Cognitive Behavioural Social
Sigmund Freud
Erick Erickson
Jean Paiget Watson
Pavlov
Skinner
Maslow
Bandura
John Bowbly
Anisworth
Sigmund Freud

Sigmund Freud was born May 6,
1856, Died September 23, 1939
Career
When he was young, Sigmund
Freuds family moved from
Frieberg, Moravia to Vienna
His parents taught him at home
before entering him in Spurling
Gymnasium, where he was first in
his class and graduated Summa
cum Laude.


After studying medicine at the University of Vienna,
Freud worked and gained respect as a physician.
Through his work with respected French neurologist
Jean-Martin Charcot, Freud became fascinated with
the emotional disorder known as hysteria.
Later, Freud and his friend and mentor Dr. Josef
Breuer introduced him to the case study of a patient
known as Anna O., who was really a woman named
Bertha Pappenheim.
Her symptoms included a nervous cough, tactile
anesthesia, and paralysis. Over the course of her
treatment, the woman recalled several traumatic
experiences, which Freud and Breuer believed
contributed to her illness.


The two physicians concluded that there was no
organic cause for Anna Os difficulties, but that having
her talk about her experiences had a calming effect on
the symptoms.

Freud and Breuer published the work Studies in
Hysteria in 1895. It was Bertha Pappenheim herself
who referred to the treatment as "the talking cure."

Later works include The Interpretation of Dreams
(1900) and Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality
(1905). While these works became world famous,
Freuds theory of psychosexual stages has long been a
subject of criticism and debate. While his theories are
often viewed with skepticism, Freuds work continues
to influence psychology and many other disciplines to
this day.

"The great question that has never been
answered, and which I have not yet been able
to answer, despite my thirty years of research
into the feminine soul, is 'What does a woman
want?'"
From Sigmund Freud: Life and Work by Ernest
Jones

The theories proposed by Sigmund Freud
stressed the importance of childhood events
and experiences, but almost exclusively focus
on mental disorders rather that normal
functioning.



According to Freud, child development is
described as a series of 'psychosexual stages.'
In "Three Essays on Sexuality" (1905), Freud
outlined these stages as oral, anal, phallic,
latency period, and genital. Each stage
involves the satisfaction of a libidinal desire
and can later play a role in adult personality.

According to Sigmund Freud, personality is
mostly established by the age of five. Early
experiences play a large role in personality
development and continue to influence
behavior later in life.



Freud's theory of personality development is
one of the best known, but also one of the
most controversial.

Freud believed that personality develops
through a series of childhood stages during
which the pleasure-seeking energies of the id
become focused on certain erogenous areas.
This psychosexual energy, or libido, was
described as the driving force behind behavior.

Archaic discharge syndrome
According to this body contains two types
of neurons :
phi neurons (for conduction of emotions).
psi neurons (for storage of emotions).
When stored, emotions reach a
certain level, a discharge occurs to
display emotions.
Psychoanalytical theory
Stage theories represent stages which are
hierarchically organized, so that later stages
incorporated remnants of earlier stages.
No stage can be skipped and successive
stages more complex and integrated than
earlier phases. (Sigmund Freud was the
founder of modern psychiatry).
He put forth the psychoanalytical theory
based on three structure to understand the
intrapsychic processes and personality
development. They are id, ego, superego (this
forms psychic triad).
The terms "id," "ego," and "super-ego" are not
Freud's own but are latinisations originating
from his translator James Strachey.
Freud himself wrote of "das Es," "das Ich,"
and "das ber-Ich"respectively, "the It,"
"the I," and the "Over-I" (or "Upper-I");
Thus to the German reader, Freud's original
terms are more or less self-explanatory. The
term "das Es" was borrowed from Georg
Groddeck, a German physician to whose
unconventional ideas Freud was much
attracted. (Groddeck's translators render the
term in English as 'the It').


Id:
It represents unregulated instinctual drives and
energies striving to meet bodily needs and
desires and is governed by pleasure principle.
Here the person thinks only of body needs
and desire but with little concern for other or
social convention.
Example: Intoxicated, sexually provocative
person exclusively acts under pleasure principle.
Dreams also provide pleasure because of their
unrestricted and uninhibited nature.
Ego:
Is the seat of consciousness, which exploits
that environment to the maximum to achieve
gratification in socially acceptable ways.
Example is the utilization of ego defense
mechanism and of other ego functions such as
memory, language, intelligence and creativity.
It develops in the 2nd to 6th months of life
and is governed by reality principle. It serves
as a mediator between id and superego.
Example: Hunger must wait until someone
provides food.
Ego:
According to Freud,
...The ego is that part of the id which has
been modified by the direct influence of the
external world ... The ego represents what
may be called reason and common sense, in
contrast to the id, which contains the passions
... in its relation to the id it is like a man on
horseback, who has to hold in check the
superior strength of the horse; with this
difference, that the rider tries to do so with his
own strength, while the ego uses borrowed
forces [Freud, The Ego and the Id (1923)]
Anxiety
Feeling of fear and dread w/o an
objective cause
Reality: Fear of tangible dangers in the real
world
Neurotic: Conflict b/t id and ego
Moral: Conflict b/t id and superego

Ego acts by (drprris)
Denial : Denying the existence of threatening situation
so as to avoid tackling it. Ex: All though the tooth pain
is severe, pretending as if it is not painful inorder to
avoid dentist.
This may be of advantageous or even
disadvantageous prevents to cope with the anxiety and
crisis, individual may not realistically cope-up with life.
Regression : It is the inappropriate response as a
result of confrontation with an anxiety producing
situation. Ex: thumb sucking in older children.
Projection : projecting ones own inadequacy on to
someone else to feel more comfortable. Ex: A bad
work will be blamed on his tools.
Ego acts by (drprris)
Repression: It is the process of unconscious forgetting
for repression of painful experiences to subconscious
mind.
Rationalization : It is the development of logical
excuses to explain behaviours. Ex: Refusing to
complete because of fear of failure but using some
other excuse.
Identification Initiating the qualities of some one
else to vent frustration.
Sublimation : It is the redirection of socially
unacceptable drive into socially approved channels to
allow the discharge of instinctive impulses in an
acceptable form. Ex: Sadist becoming a butcher.
Ego:
In modern-day society, ego has many
meanings. It could mean ones self-esteem; an
inflated sense of self-worth; or in philosophical
terms, ones self.
However, according to Freud, the ego is the
part of the mind which contains the
consciousness.
Originally, Freud had associated the word ego
to meaning a sense of self; however, he later
revised it to mean a set of psychic functions
such as judgment, tolerance, reality-testing,
control, planning, defense, synthesis of
information, intellectual functioning, and
memory.
Superego:
It may be linked to a social conscience. It is
that part of personality which is the internalized
representation of the values and morals of
society as taught to the child by the parents
and others. It is derived from the familial,
culture restrictions placed upon a growing
child.
It develops from the internalization of
feeling of good and bad, love-hate, praising-
forbidding, reward and punishment of both
parents.
Superego:
It continues during school age and in fact
throughout life based on identification on
with important figures such as teacher
sports heroes etc. If child identifies
aggressive, violent parent, it leads to the
possibility of uncivilized behavior.
Thus,
The id seeks pleasure.
The ego tests reality.
Superego strives for perfection
Psychoanalytic Freuds Theory
Based on his observations, he developed
a theory that described development in
terms of a series of psychosexual stages.
According to Freud, conflicts that occur
during each of these stages can have a
lifelong influence on personality and
behavior.
According to Freud, child development is
described as a series of 'psychosexual
stages.'
Freud's Stages of Psychosexual
Development

The Oral Stage
The Anal Stage
The Phallic Stage
The Latent Period
The Genital Stage
Oral stage
During the oral stage, the infant's primary
source of interaction occurs through the
mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is
especially important.
The mouth is vital for eating, and the infant
derives pleasure from oral stimulation
through gratifying activities such as tasting and
sucking.
Because the infant is entirely dependent upon
caretakers (who are responsible for feeding the
child), the infant also develops a sense of
trust and comfort through this oral
stimulation.
Oral stage
The primary conflict at this stage is the
weaning process--the child must become less
dependent upon caretakers.
If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud believed
the individual would have issues with
dependency or aggression. Oral fixation can
result in problems with drinking, eating,
smoking, or nail biting.
Anal stage
During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary
focus of the libido was on controlling bladder and
bowel movements.
The major conflict at this stage is toilet training--the
child has to learn to control his or her bodily needs.
Developing this control leads to a sense of
accomplishment and independence.
Success at this stage is dependent upon the way in
which parents approach toilet training
Anal stage
Parents who utilize praise and rewards for using the
toilet at the appropriate time encourage positive
outcomes and help children feel capable and productive.
Freud believed that positive experiences during this
stage served as the basis for people to become
competent, productive, and creative adults.
If parents take an approach that is too lenient, Freud
suggested that an anal-expulsive personality could
develop in which the individual has a messy, wasteful,
or destructive personality
If parents are too strict or begin toilet training too early,
Freud believed that an anal-retentive personality
develops in which the individual is stringent, orderly,
rigid, and obsessive.

Phallic stage
During the phallic stage, the primary focus of the
libido is on the genitals. Children also discover
the differences between males and females.
Freud also believed that boys begin to view their
fathers as a rival for the mothers affections.
The Oedipus complex describes these feelings
of wanting to possess the mother and the desire
to replace the father. However, the child also
fears that he will be punished by the father for
these feelings, a fear Freud termed castration
anxiety.


Phallic stage
The term Electra complex has been used
to described a similar set of feelings
experienced by young girls. Freud,
however, believed that girls instead
experience penis envy.

Eventually, the child realizes begins to
identify with the same-sex parent as a
means of vicariously possessing the
other parent.
For girls, however, Freud believed that
penis envy was never fully resolved and
that all women remain somewhat fixated
on this stage.

Psychologists such as Karen Horney
disputed this theory, calling it both
inaccurate and demeaning to women.
Instead, Horney proposed that men
experience feelings of inferiority because
they cannot give birth to children.
The latent Period
During the latent period, the libido interests are
suppressed. The development of the ego and
superego contribute to this period of calm. The
stage begins around the time that children
enter into school and become more concerned
with peer relationships, hobbies, and other
interests.

This stage is important in the development of
social and communication skills and self-
confidence.


The Genital stage
During the final stage of psychosexual
development, the individual develops a strong
sexual interest in the opposite sex.
Where in earlier stages the focus was solely on
individual needs and, interest in the welfare of
others grows during this stage.
If the other stages have been completed
successfully, the individual should now be well-
balanced, warm, and caring. The goal of this
stage is to establish a balance between the
various life areas.
If the stages are completed successfully, the
result is a healthy personality. If certain issues
are not resolved at the appropriate stage,
fixation can occur.
A fixation is a persistent focus on an earlier
psychosexual stage. Until this conflict is
resolved, the individual will remain "stuck" in
this stage.
For example, a person who is fixated at the
oral stage may be over-dependent on others
and may seek oral stimulation through
smoking, drinking, or eating.

Drawbacks
The theory is focused almost entirely on
male development with little mention of
female psychosexual development.
His theories are difficult to test
scientifically. Concepts such as the libido
are impossible to measure, and therefore
cannot be tested. The research that has
been conducted tends to discredit
Freud's theory.
Drawbacks
Future predictions are too vague. How can we
know that a current behavior was caused
specifically by a childhood experience? The
length of time between the cause and the
effect is too long to assume that there is a
relationship between the two variables.
Freud's theory is based upon case studies and
not empirical research. Also, Freud based his
theory on the recollections of his adult patients,
not on actual observation and study of children.


Selected Publications by Sigmund Freud:
(1895) Studies in Hysteria
(1900) The Interpretation of Dreams
(1901) The Psychopathology of Everyday Life
(1905) Three Essays on the Theory of
Sexuality
(1905) Fragment of an Analysis of a Case of
Hysteria
(1923) The Ego and the Id
(1930) Civilization and its Discontents
(1939) Moses and Monotheism

Biographies of Sigmund Freud:
Breger, Louis (2000). Freud: Darkness in the
Midst of Vision--An Analytical Biography
Ferris, Paul (1999). Dr. Freud: A Life
Gay, Peter (1998). Freud : A Life for Our Time
Roazen, Paul (1992). Freud and His Followers

References
Groddeck, G.W. (1928), "The Book of the
It" Nervous and Mental Diseases
Publishing Company, New York
Freud, An Outline of Psycho-analysis
(1940)]

Theories of child
development
Psychoanalytic Cognitive Behavioural Social
Sigmund Freud
Erick Erickson
Jean Paiget Watson
Pavlov
Skinner
Maslow
Bandura
John Bowbly
Anisworth
Hope is both the earliest
and the most
indispensable virtue
inherent in the state of
being alive. If life is to be
sustained hope must
remain, even where
confidence is wounded,
trust impaired. --Erik
Erikson
Erik Homburger Erikson (June 15, 1902 May
12, 1994) was born in Frankfurt to Danish parents,
but later obtained American citizenship. He was a
developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst
known for his theory on social development of
human beings, and for coining the phrase identity
crisis.

His biological father was an unnamed Danish man
who abandoned Erik's mother before he was born.
His mother, Karla Abrahamsen, was a young
Jewish woman who raised him alone for the first
three years of his life. She then married Dr.
Theodor Homberger, who was Erik's pediatrician,
and moved to Karlsruhe in southern Germany.
We cannot pass over this little piece of biography without
some comment: The development of identity seems to
have been one of his greatest concerns in Erikson's own
life as well as in his theory. During his childhood, and his
early adulthood, he was Erik Homberger, and his parents
kept the details of his birth a secret. So here he was, a tall,
blond, blue-eyed boy who was also Jewish.


When he was 25, his friend Peter Blos -- a fellow artist and,
later, psychoanalyst -- suggested he apply for a teaching
position at an experimental school for American students
run by Dorothy Burlingham, a friend of Anna Freud.
Besides teaching art, he gathered a certificate in
Montessori education and one from the Vienna
Psychoanalytic Society. He was psychoanalyzed by Anna
Freud herself.
When he became an American citizen, he officially
changed his name to Erik Erikson. Erikson's son, Kai
Erikson, believes it was just a decision to define himself
as a self-made man: Erik, son of Erik.
Theorist Erik Erikson also proposed a
stage theory of development, but his
theory encompassed development
throughout the human lifespan.
Erikson believed that each stage of
development is focused on overcoming a
conflict. Success or failure in dealing with
conflicts can impact overall functioning.
What is Psychosocial Development?
Erik Eriksons theory of psychosocial
development is one of the best-known theories
of personality in psychology.
Much like Sigmund Freud, Erikson believed
that personality develops in a series of stages.
Unlike Freuds theory of psychosexual stages,
Eriksons theory describes the impact of social
experience across the whole lifespan.


One of the main elements of Eriksons psychosocial
stage theory is the development of ego identity.
Ego identity is the conscious sense of self that we
develop through social interaction. According to
Erikson, our ego identity is constantly changing due to
new experience and information we acquire in our daily
interactions with others.
In addition to ego identity, Erikson also believed that a
sense of competence also motivates behaviors and
actions.
Each stage in Eriksons theory is concerned with
becoming competent in an area of life. If the stage is
handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery,
which he sometimes referred to as ego strength or
ego quality.If the stage is managed poorly, the person
will emerge with a sense of inadequacy.


Psychosocial Stage 1 - Trust vs. Mistrust
(Important events Feeding)
The first stage of Eriksons theory of
psychosocial development occurs
between birth and one year of age and is
the most fundamental stage in life.
Because an infant is utterly dependent,
the development of trust is based on the
dependability and quality of the childs
caregivers.

Psychosocial Stage 1 - Trust vs. Mistrust
If a child successfully develops trust, he
or she will feel safe and secure in the
world. Caregivers who are inconsistent,
emotionally unavailable, or rejecting
contribute to feelings of mistrust in the
children they care for.
Failure to develop trust will result in fear
and a belief that the world is inconsistent
and unpredictable.

Psychosocial Stage 2 - Autonomy vs.
Shame and Doubt
(Imp. Events Toilet training)
The second stage of Erikson's theory of
psychosocial development takes place during
early childhood and is focused on children
developing a greater sense of personal control.

Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training
was a vital part of this process. However,
Erikson's reasoning was quite different then
that of Freud's. Erikson believe that learning to
control ones body functions leads to a feeling
of control and a sense of independence.

Psychosocial Stage 2 - Autonomy vs.
Shame and Doubt
Other important events include gaining
more control over food choices, toy
preferences, and clothing selection.
Children who successfully complete this
stage feel secure and confident, while
those who do not are left with a sense of
inadequacy and self-doubt.

Psychosocial Stage 3 - Initiative vs. Guilt
(imp. Events Exploration)
During the preschool years, children
begin to assert their power and control
over the world through directing play and
other social interaction.
Children who are successful at this stage
feel capable and able to lead others.
Those who fail to acquire these skills are
left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt and
lack of initiative.

Psychosocial Stage 4 - Industry vs.
Inferiority
(Imp. Events School)
This stage covers the early school years from
approximately age 5 to 11.
Through social interactions, children begin to
develop a sense of pride in their
accomplishments and abilities.
Children who are encouraged and commended
by parents and teachers develop a feeling of
competence and belief in their skills. Those
who receive little or no encouragement from
parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their
ability to be successful.

Psychosocial Stage 5 - Identity vs.
Confusion
(Imp. Events- Social relationships)
During adolescence, children are exploring
their independence and developing a sense of
self.
Those who receive proper encouragement and
reinforcement through personal exploration will
emerge from this stage with a strong sense of
self and a feeling of independence and control.
Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and
desires will insecure and confused about
themselves and the future.

Psychosocial Stage 6 - Intimacy vs.
Isolation
(Imp. Events Relationships)
This stage covers the period of early
adulthood when people are exploring
personal relationships.
Erikson believed it was vital that people
develop close, committed relationships
with other people. Those who are
successful at this step will develop
relationships that are committed and
secure.

Psychosocial Stage 6 - Intimacy vs.
Isolation
Remember that each step builds on skills
learned in previous steps. Erikson believed that
a strong sense of personal identity was
important to developing intimate relationships.
Studies have demonstrated that those with a
poor sense of self tend to have less committed
relationships and are more likely to suffer
emotional isolation, loneliness, and depression.

Psychosocial Stage 7 - Generativity vs.
Stagnation
(Imp. Events- Work & Parenthood)
During adulthood, we continue to build
our lives, focusing on our career and
family.
Those who are successful during this
phase will feel that they are contributing
to the world by being active in their home
and community. Those who fail to attain
this skill will feel unproductive and
uninvolved in the world.

Psychosocial Stage 8 - Integrity vs.
Despair
(Imp events Reflection on life)
This phase occurs during old age and is focused on
reflecting back on life.
Those who are unsuccessful during this phase will feel
that their life has been wasted and will experience
many regrets. The individual will be left with feelings of
bitterness and despair.
Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel
a sense of integrity. Successfully completing this phase
means looking back with few regrets and a general
feeling of satisfaction. These individuals will attain
wisdom, even when confronting death.

A major criticism of Eriksons theory is that it
is based primarily on work done with boys
and men.
Bingham and Stryker (1995) suggest that
development of identity, intimacy and
generativity may receive different
emphases throughout adulthood for men
and women.

Bingham, M., & Stryker, S. (1995). Things will be different for my daughter: A practical
guide to building her self-esteem and self-reliance. New York: Penguin Books.

Bingham and Stiker propose five stages
of socioemotional development for
girls and women that parallels those
proposed by Erikson, but places
different emphases at important
sensitive time periods.

Bingham & Strykers Theory
Developing the
Hardy
Personality
Through age
8 yrs.

Feel in control of
own life, committed
to specific
activities, look
forward to
challenge and
opportunity for
growth
Bingham & Strykers Theory
Form
Identity
as an
Achiever
Age 9-12 yrs
Develop steady,
durable core of self
as person who is
capable of
accomplishment in
a variety of areas
(e.g., intellectual,
physical, social,
potential career)
Bingham & Strykers Theory
Skill Building
for Self-
Esteem
Age 13-16
yrs
Feeling of being
worthy, deserving,
entitled to assert
needs and wants;
confidence in
ability to cope with
life
Bingham & Strykers Theory
Strategies for
Self-Sufficiency
(Emotional-
Financial)
Age 17-22
yrs
Sense of
responsibility for
taking care of
herself and,
perhaps, a family;
based on a sense
of autonomy
Bingham & Strykers Theory
Satisfaction in
Work and
Love
Adulthood
Contentedness in
personal
accomplishments
and social/personal
relationships

Theories Compared
Eriksons stage of Industry vs.
Inferiority seems to be essentially
equivalent to Bingham and Strykers
Form Identity as an Achiever.
For boys, there may be more of an
opportunity to address the issue of any
deficiencies in a sense of accomplishment
within the stage of identity formation.

Theories Compared
However, it is likely that if girls have not
successfully developed a sense of
accomplishment during middle and late
childhood, it may be a decade or more
before there is an opportunity to again
tackle this issue.

This is because as girls attend to the issue of
identity, their natural attention to
relationships produces a different pathway
for identity development .

Self-Esteem
Another issue is the drop in self-esteem
that occurs naturally as a part of
adolescence in modern society.

The importance of self-esteem for girls in the
adolescent years cannot be
overemphasized.

Self-Esteem

A study by the American Association of
University Women (AAUW, 1991) showed
that girls had a precipitous drop in self-
esteem between elementary and high
school.

While boys also showed a decline it was not
nearly as dramatic.

Self-Esteem

Percentage Responding Positively to the statement "I am
happy the way I am"
High %
Elementary School Decrease
Boys 67 46 19
White Girls 60 29 31
African-American Girls 65 58 7
Hispanic Girls 68 30 38

Theories Compared
In Erikson's model the crisis of young
adulthood is intimacy versus isolation.
In the Bingham-Stryker model the crisis is
emotional and financial self-sufficiency.
Theories Compared
The difference may lie in gender expectations.

Men are expected to become self-sufficient; the
male crisis is one of establishing intimacy.

Women are expected to establish
relationships; the female crisis is
autonomy in terms of taking care of
themselves emotionally and financially.

Theories Compared
Similar differences exist in middle and older
adulthood.

Erikson considers two separate crises:
Generativity and Ego Integrity.

Bingham and Stryker hypothesize one crisis for
adult women: Satisfaction in Work and Love

Major works (Erick Erickson)

Childhood and Society (1950)
Young Man Luther. A Study in Psychoanalysis and
History (1958)
Identity: Youth and Crisis (1968)
Gandhi's Truth: On the Origin of Militant Nonviolence
(1969)
Adulthood (edited book, 1978)
Vital Involvement in Old Age (with J.M. Erikson and H.
Kivnick, 1986)
The Life Cycle Completed (with J.M. Erikson, 1987)

Cognitive Child Development Theory

"The principle goal of
education in the
schools should be
creating men and
women who are
capable of doing new
things, not simply
repeating what other
generations have
done- Jean Piaget
Jean Piaget (August 9, 1896 September 16,
1980) was a Swiss philosopher, natural
scientist and developmental theorist, well
known for his work studying children, his theory
of cognitive development and for his
epistemological view called "genetic
epistemology.
" He created in 1955 the International Centre
for Genetic Epistemology in Geneva and
directed it until 1980. According to Ernst von
Glasersfeld, Jean Piaget is "the great pioneer
of the constructivist theory of knowing."
Piagets stage theory describes the
cognitive development of children.
Cognitive development involves changes
in cognitive process and abilities.
In Piagets view, early cognitive
development involves processes based
upon actions and later progresses into
changes in mental operations.
Key Concepts
Schemas A schema describes both the
mental and physical actions involved in
understanding and knowing.
Schemas are categories of knowledge that
help us to interpret and understand the world.
In Piagets view, a schema includes both a
category of knowledge and the process of
obtaining that knowledge.
As experiences happen, this new information is
used to modify, add to, or change previously
existing schemas.
Schemas
For example, a child may have a schema
about a type of animal, such as a dog.
If the childs sole experience has been with
small dogs, a child might believe that all dogs
are small, furry, and have four legs.
Suppose then that the child encounters a very
large dog. The child will take in this new
information, modifying the previously existing
schema to include this new information.


Assimilation
The process of taking in new information into
our previously existing schemas is known as
assimilation.
The process is somewhat subjective, because
we tend to modify experience or information
somewhat to fit in with our preexisting beliefs.
In the example before, seeing a dog and
labeling it dog is an example of assimilating
the animal into the childs dog schema.


Accommodation
Another part of adaptation involves changing or
altering our existing schemas in light of new
information, a process known as
accommodation.
Accommodation involves altering existing
schemas, or ideas, as a result of new
information or new experiences. New schemas
may also be developed during this process.


Equilibration
Piaget believed that all children try to strike a
balance between assimilation and
accommodation, which is achieved through a
mechanism Piaget called equilibration.
As children progress through the stages of
cognitive development, it is important to
maintain a balance between applying previous
knowledge (assimilation) and changing
behavior to account for new knowledge
(accommodation).
Equilibration helps explain how children are
able to move from one stage of thought into the
next.
Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

The Sensorimotor Stage
The Preoperational Stage
The Concrete Operational Stage
The Formal Operational Stage

1. Sensorimotor Stage:

The first stage of Piagets theory lasts from
birth to approximately age two and is centered
on the infant trying to make sense of the world.
During the sensorimotor stage, an infants
knowledge of the world is limited to their
sensory perceptions and motor activities.
Behaviors are limited to simple motor
responses caused by sensory stimuli. Children
utilize skills and abilities they were born with,
such as looking, sucking, grasping, and
listening, to learn more about the environment.
Substages of the Sensorimotor Stage:
The sensorimotor stage can be divided into six
separate substages that are characterized by the
development of a new skill.
Reflexes (0-1 month):
Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months):
Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months):
Coordination of Reactions (8-12 months):
Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months):
Early Representational Thought (18-24 months):


Reflexes (0-1 month):
During this substage, the child understands the
environment purely through inborn reflexes
such as sucking and looking.
Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months):
This substage involves coordinating sensation
and new schemas.
For example, a child may suck his or her
thumb by accident and then later intentionally
repeat the action. These actions are repeated
because the infant finds them pleasurable.
Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months):
During this substage, the child becomes more focused
on the world and begins to intentionally repeat an
action in order to trigger a response in the
environment.
For example, a child will purposefully pick up a toy in
order to put it in his or her mouth.
Coordination of Reactions (8-12 months):
During this substage, the child starts to show clearly
intentional actions. The child may also combine
schemas in order to achieve a desired effect.
Children begin exploring the environment around them
and will often imitate the observed behavior of others.
The understanding of objects also begins during this
time and children begin to recognize certain objects as
having specific qualities. For example, a child might
realize that a rattle will make a sound when shaken.
Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months):
Children begin a period of trial-and-error
experimentation during the fifth substage.
For example, a child may try out different
sounds or actions as a way of getting attention
from a caregiver.
Early Representational Thought (18-24
months):
Children begin to develop symbols to represent
events or objects in the world in the final
sensorimotor substage.
During this time, children begin to move
towards understanding the world through
mental operations rather than purely through
actions.
2. The Preoperational Stage
The preoperational stage occurs between
ages two and six. Language
development is one of the hallmarks of
this period.
Piaget noted that children in this stage do
not yet understand concrete logic, cannot
mentally manipulate information, and are
unable to take the point of view of other
people, which he termed egocentrism.
The Preoperational Stage
During the preoperational stage, children also
become increasingly adept at using symbols,
as evidenced by the increase in playing and
pretending.
For example, a child is able to use an object to
represent something else, such as pretending
a broom is a horse. Role playing also becomes
important during the preoperational stage.
Children often play the roles of "mommy,"
"daddy," "doctor," and many others.
Egocentrism:
Piaget used a number of creative and clever
techniques to study the mental abilities of
children.
One of the famous techniques egocentrism
involved using a three-dimensional display of a
mountain scene. Children are asked to choose
a picture that showed the scene they had
observed. Most children are able to do this with
little difficulty. Next, children are asked to select
a picture showing what someone else would
have observed when looking at the mountain
from a different viewpoint.
Conservation:

Another well-known experiment involves
demonstrating a child's understanding of
conservation.
In one conservation experiment, equal
amounts of liquid are poured into two identical
containers. The liquid in one container is then
poured into a different shaped cup, such as a
tall and thin cup, or a short and wide cup.
Children are then asked which cup holds the
most liquid. Despite seeing that the liquid
amounts were equal, children almost always
choose the cup that appears fuller.
Conservation:
Piaget conducted a number of similar
experiments on conservation of number,
length, mass, weight, volume, and
quantity.
Piaget found that few children showed
any understanding of conservation prior
to the age of five.

3. Concrete Operations stage:

The concrete operational stage begins
around age seven and continues until
approximately age eleven. During this
time, children gain a better understanding
of mental operations.
Children begin thinking logically about
concrete events, but have difficulty
understanding abstract or hypothetical
concepts.
Logic:
Piaget determined that children in the
concrete operational stage were fairly
good at the use of inductive logic.
Inductive logic involves going from a
specific experience to a general principle.
On the other hand, children at this age
have difficulty using deductive logic,
which involves using a general principle
to determine the outcome of a specific
event.
Reversibility:
One of the most important developments
in this stage is an understanding of
reversibility, or awareness that actions
can be reversed.
An example of this is being able to
reverse the order of relationships
between mental categories. For example,
a child might be able to recognize that his
or her dog is a Labrador, that a Labrador
is a dog, and that a dog is an animal.
4. The Formal Operational Stage
The formal operational stage begins at
approximately age twelve to and lasts
into adulthood.
During this time, people develop the
ability to think about abstract concepts.
Skills such as logical thought, deductive
reasoning, and systematic planning also
emerge during this stage.
Logic: Piaget believed that deductive
logic becomes important during the
formal operational stage.
Deductive logic requires the ability to use
a general principle to determine a
specific outcome. This type of thinking
involves hypothetical situations and is
often required in science and
mathematics.
Abstract Thought:
While children tend to think very
concretely and specifically in earlier
stages, the ability to think about abstract
concepts emerges during the formal
operational stage.
Instead of relying solely on previous
experiences, children begin to consider
possible outcomes and consequences of
actions. This type of thinking is important
in long-term planning
Problem-Solving:
In earlier stages, children used trial-and-
error to solve problems. During the
formal operational stage, the ability to
systematically solve a problem in a
logical and methodical way emerges.
Children at the formal operational stage
of cognitive development are often able
to quickly plan an organized approach to
solving a problem.
Support for Piagets Theory:
Piaget's Impact on Education:
Piaget's focus on qualitative
development had an important impact on
education. While Piaget did not
specifically apply his theory to education,
many educational programs are built
upon the belief that children should be
taught at the level for which they are
developmentally prepared.
Support for Piagets Theory:
In addition to this, a number of
instructional strategies have been
derived from Piaget's work.
These strategies include providing a
supportive environment, utilizing social
interactions and peer teaching, and
helping children see fallacies and
inconsistencies in their thinking (Driscoll,
1994).

Criticisms of Piaget:
Problems With Research Methods

Much of the criticism of Piaget's work is in
regards to his research methods.
A major source of inspiration for the theory was
Piaget's observations of his own three children.
In addition to this, the other children in Piaget's
small research sample were all from well-
educated professionals of high socio-economic
status. Because of this unrepresentative
sample, it is difficult to generalize his findings
to a larger population.
Problems With Formal Operations

Research has disputed Piaget's
argument that all children will
automatically move to the next stage of
development as they mature. Some data
suggests that environmental factors may
play a role in the development of formal
operations.
Underestimates Children's Abilities

Most researchers agree that children posses
many of the abilities at an earlier age than
Piaget suspected.
Recent research on theory of mind has found
that children of 4- or 5-years old have a rather
sophisticated understanding of their own
mental processes as well as those of other
people.
For example, children of this age have some
ability to take the perspective of another
person, meaning they are far less egocentric
than Piaget believed.
While there are few strict Piagetians,
most can appreciate Piaget's influence
and legacy. His work generated interest
in child development and had an
enormous impact on the future of
education and developmental
psychology.
Piaget, J. (1950). Introduction lpistmologie
Gntique. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
Piaget, J. (1961). La psychologie de l'intelligence.
Paris: Armand Colin (1961, 1967, 1991). Online
version
Piaget, J. (1967). Logique et Connaissance
scientifique, Encyclopdie de la Pliade.
Inhelder, B. and J. Piaget (1958). The Growth of
Logical Thinking from Childhood to Adolescence. New
York: Basic Books.
Inhelder, B. and Piaget, J. (1964). The Early Growth of
Logic in the Child: Classification and Seriation. London:
Routledge and Kegan Paul.

Piaget, J. (1928). The Child's Conception of the
World. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Piaget, J. (1932). The Moral Judgment of the
Child. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner
and Co.
Piaget, J. (1952). The Child's Conception of
Number. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Piaget, J. (1953). The Origins of Intelligence in
Children. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Piaget, J. (1955). The Child's Construction of
Reality. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

To be continued..
Behavioral Child Development Theories

Behavioral theories of child development
focus on how environmental interaction
influences behavior and are based upon
the theories of theorists such as Watson,
Pavlov, and Skinner.
These theories deal only with observable
behaviors. Development is considered a
reaction to rewards, punishments,
stimuli, and reinforcement.
What Is Behaviorism?
Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed,
and my own specified world to bring them up in
and Ill guarantee to take any one at random
and train him to become any type of specialist I
might select -- doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-
chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief,
regardless of his talents, penchants,
tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his
ancestors.
--John Watson, Behaviorism, 1930
What Is Behaviorism?
Behavioral psychology, also known as
behaviorism, is a theory of learning based
upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired
through conditioning.
Conditioning occurs through interaction with
the environment. According to behaviorism,
behavior can be studied in a systematic and
observable manner with no consideration of
internal mental states.

Major Thinkers in Behaviorism

Ivan Pavlov
John B. Watson
B. F. Skinner
Maslow
Bandura

John Broadus Watson (January 9, 1878
September 25, 1958)
Was an American psychologist who established the
psychological school of behaviorism, after doing
research on animal behavior. He also conducted the
controversial "Little Albert" experiment.

He wrote extensively on childrearing in many popular
magazines and in a book, "Psychological Care of Infant
and Child" (1928),

Views on child rearing
He later regretted having written in the area
saying that "he did not know enough" to do a
good job.
Watson's advice to treat children with respect,
but with relative emotional detachment, has
been strongly criticized. But this perspective
was not unique to Watson.
It is also associated with psychoanalytic
thinkers who worried that too much emotional
attachment in childhood would lead to overly
dependent adults.
(Watson's borrowing from Sigmund Freud
and other early psychoanalysts remains
an unexamined aspect of his
behaviorism.)
Not commonly mentioned by modern
critics, is that Watson warned strongly
against the use of spanking and other
corporal punishment.

Behaviorism is a school of thought in
psychology that assumes that learning occurs
through interactions with the environment.
Two other assumptions of this theory are that
the environment shapes behavior and that
taking internal mental states such as thoughts,
feelings, and emotions into consideration is
useless in explaining behavior.


Classical Conditioning
Science demands from
a man all his life. If you
had two lives that would
not be enough for you.
Be passionate in your
work and in your
searching."--Ivan Pavlov
(1849-1936)
Nobel prize 1904 for
physiology
One of the best-known aspects of behavioral
learning theory is classical conditioning.
Discovered by Russian physiologist Ivan
Pavlov, classical conditioning is a learning
process that occurs through associations
between an environmental stimulus and a
naturally occurring stimulus.
In order to understand how classical
conditioning works, it is important to be familiar
with the basic principles of the process.
The Unconditioned Stimulus
The unconditioned stimulus is one that
unconditionally, naturally, and
automatically triggers a response.
For example, when you smell one of your
favorite foods, you may immediately feel
very hungry.
In this example, the smell of the food is
the unconditioned stimulus.
The Unconditioned Response
The unconditioned response is the
unlearned response that occurs naturally
in response to the unconditioned
stimulus.
In our example, the feeling of hunger in
response to the smell of food is the
unconditioned response.
The Conditioned Stimulus

The conditioned stimulus is previously neutral
stimulus that, after becoming associated with
the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes
to trigger a conditioned response.
In our earlier example, suppose that when you
smelled your favorite food, you also heard the
sound of a whistle. While the whistle is
unrelated to the smell of the food, if the sound
of the whistle was paired multiple times with
the smell, the sound would eventually trigger
the conditioned response. In this case, the
sound of the whistle is the conditioned stimulus
The Conditioned Response
The conditioned response is the learned
response to the previously neutral
stimulus. In our example, the conditioned
response would be feeling hungry when
you heard the sound of the whistle.
Classical Conditioning in the Real World
In reality, people do not respond exactly
like Pavlov's dogs. There are, however,
numerous real-world applications for
classical conditioning.
Many dog trainers use classical
conditioning techniques to help people
train their pets.
These techniques are also useful in the
treatment of phobias or anxiety problems.
Teachers are able to apply classical
conditioning in the class by creating a positive
classroom environment to help students
overcome anxiety or fear.
Pairing an anxiety-provoking situation, such as
performing in front of a group, with pleasant
surroundings helps the student learn new
associations. Instead of feeling anxious and
tense in these situations, the child will learn to
stay relaxed and calm.
Principles involved are
Generalization: wherein a process of
conditioning is evoked by a band of
stimuli centered around a centered
stimulus. Thus a test stimulus similar to
training stimulus results in a response.
Example- child who has painful
experience with a doctor in a white coat
always associates white coat with pain.
Extinction of a conditioned behaviour
results if the association between the
conditioned and the unconditioned
response is not reinforced.
Example- in the above mentioned
example subsequent visits to the doctor
without any un pleasant experience
results in extinction of fear.
Discrimination is the opposite of
generalization.
If the child is exposed to clinic settings
which are different to those associated
with the painful experiences, the child
learns to discriminate between the two
clinics and even the generalized
response to any office will be
extinguished.
One of Pavlovs dogs
with a surgically
implanted cannula to
measure salivation,
Pavlov Museum,
2005
Operant Conditioning
The consequences
of behavior
determine the
probability that the
behavior will occur
again" --B. F. Skinner
(1904-1990)
What Is Operant Conditioning?

Operant conditioning (sometimes
referred to as instrumental
conditioning) is a method of learning
that occurs through rewards and
punishments for behavior.
Through operant conditioning, an
association is made between a behavior
and a consequence for that behavior.
Examples of Operant Conditioning

We can find examples of operant conditioning
at work all around us, such as children
completing homework to earn a reward from a
parent or teacher or employees finishing
projects to receive praise or promotions. In
these examples, the promise or possibility of
rewards causes an increase in behavior,
But operant conditioning can also be used to
decrease a behavior.
The removal of an undesirable outcome
or the use of punishment can be used to
decrease or prevent undesirable
behaviors.
For example, a child may be told they will
lose recess privileges if they talk out of
turn in class. This potential for
punishment may lead to a decrease in
disruptive behaviors.
Components of Operant Conditioning

A reinforcer is any event that strengthens or
increases the behavior it follows. There are two
kinds of reinforcers:
Positive reinforcers are favorable events or
outcomes that are presented after the behavior.
Negative reinforcers involve the removal of an
unfavorable events or outcomes after the display of
a behavior.
In both of these cases of reinforcement, the
behavior increases.
Components of Operant Conditioning
Punishment is the presentation of an adverse
event or outcome that causes a decrease in
the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of
punishment:
Positive punishment involves the presentation of
an unfavorable event or outcome in order to weaken
the response it follows.
Negative punishment occurs when an favorable
event or outcome is removed after a behavior
occurs.
In both of these cases of punishment, the
behavior decreases.
In operant conditioning, schedules of
reinforcement are an important component of
the learning process.
When and how often we reinforce a behavior
can have a dramatic impact on the strength
and rate of the response. Certain schedules of
reinforcement may be more effective in specific
situations.
There are two types of reinforcement
schedules:
1. Continuous Reinforcement
In continuous reinforcement, the desired
behavior is reinforced every single time it
occurs.
Generally, this schedule is best used during
the initial stages of learning in order to create a
strong association between the behavior and
the response.
Once the response if firmly attached,
reinforcement is usually switched to a partial
reinforcement schedule.
2. Partial Reinforcement
In partial reinforcement, the response is
reinforced only part of the time.
Learned behaviors are acquired more
slowly with partial reinforcement, but the
response is more resistant to extinction.
There are four schedules of partial
reinforcement:
Partial Reinforcement
Fixed-ratio schedules are those where a
response is reinforced only after a specified
number of responses. This schedule produces
a high, steady rate of responding with only a
brief pause after the delivery of the reinforcer.
Variable-ratio schedules occur when a
response is reinforced after an unpredictable
number of responses. This schedule creates a
high steady rate of responding. Gambling and
lottery games are good examples of a reward
based on a variable ratio schedule.

Partial Reinforcement
Fixed-interval schedules are those where the
first response is rewarded only after a specified
amount of time has elapsed. This schedule
causes high amounts of responding near the
end of the interval, but much slower
responding immediately after the delivery of
the reinforcer.
Variable-interval schedules occur when a
response is rewarded after an unpredictable
amount of time has passed. This schedule
produces a slow, steady rate of response.

Positive and negative reinforcements are
the most suitable types of operant
conditioning for a dental office while the
other (punishment) type of operant
conditioning should be used with caution.
One mild form of punishment that can be
used for children is the Voice control
Hierarchy of Needs
Psychologist Abraham Maslow first
introduced his concept of a hierarchy of
needs in his 1943 paper A Theory of
Human Motivation and his subsequent
book, Motivation and Personality.
This hierarchy suggests that people are
motivated to fulfill basic needs before
moving on to other needs.
Maslows hierarchy of needs is most often
displayed as a pyramid, with lowest levels of
the pyramid made up of the most basic needs
and more complex needs are at the top of the
pyramid.
Needs at the bottom of the pyramid are basic
physical requirements including the need for
food, water, sleep and warmth.
Once these lower-level needs have been met,
people can move on to the next level of needs,
which are for safety and security.
Self-actualisation needs
(self-fulfilment,
personal growth
realisation
of potential
Aesthetic needs
(symmetry,order,beauty)

Cognitive needs
(knowing, understanding, exploring)

Self-esteem needs
(competence, respect, recognition)

Belonging and love needs
(family, affection, relationships, acceptance by others)

Safety needs
(security, freedom from danger)

Physiological needs
(hunger, thirst, shelter, etc)

As people progress up the pyramid, needs
become increasingly psychological and social.
Soon, the need for love, friendship and
intimacy become important. Further up the
pyramid, the need for personal esteem and
feelings of accomplishment become important.
Maslow emphasized the importance of self-
actualization, which is a process of growing
and developing as a person to achieve
individual potential.
While Maslows theory is generally portrayed
as a fairly rigid hierarchy, Maslow noted that
the order in which these needs are fulfilled
does not always follow this order.
For example, he notes that for some
individuals, the need for self-esteem is more
important than the need for love. For others,
the need for creative fulfillment may supersede
even the most basic needs.
Types of Needs

Maslow believed that these needs are similar
to instincts and play a major role in motivating
behavior.
Physiological, security, social, and esteem
needs are deficiency needs (also known as
D-needs), meaning that these needs arise due
to deprivation.
Satisfying these lower-level needs is important
in order to avoid unpleasant feelings or
consequences.
Maslow term the highest-level of the
pyramid a growth need (also known as
being needs or B-needs). Growth needs
do not stem from a lack of something, but
rather from a desire to grow as a person.

Five Levels of the Hierarchy of Needs

Physiological Needs

These include the most basic needs that are
vital to survival, including the need for water,
air, food, and sleep. Maslow believed that
these needs are the most basic and
instinctive needs in the hierarchy because all
needs become secondary until these
physiological needs are met.
Security Needs

These include needs for safety and security.
Security needs are important for survival, but
they are not as demanding as the
physiological needs. Examples of security
needs include a desire for steady
employment, health insurance, safe
neighborhoods, and shelter from the
environment.
Social Needs

These include needs for belonging, love, and
affection. Maslow considered these needs to
be less basic than physiological and security
needs. Relationships such as friendships,
romantic attachments and families help fulfill
this need for companionship and acceptance,
as does involvement in social, community or
religious groups.
Esteem Needs

After the first three needs have been
satisfied, esteem needs becomes
increasingly important. These include
the need for things that reflect on self-
esteem, personal worth, social
recognition, and accomplishment.
Self-actualizing Needs

This is the highest level of Maslows
hierarchy of needs. Self-actualizing
people are self-aware, concerned with
personal growth, less concerned with
the opinions of others, and interested
fulfilling their potential.
What Is Self-Actualization?

Located at the peak of Maslows hierarchy, he
described this high-level need in the following
way:
"What a man can be, he must be. This need
we may call self-actualizationIt refers to the
desire for self-fulfillment, namely, to the
tendency for him to become actualized in what
he is potentially.
This tendency might be phrased as the desire
to become more and more what one is, to
become everything that one is capable of
becoming."
Criticisms of Maslows Hierarchy of
Needs

While some research showed some support for
Maslows theories, most research has not been
able to substantiate the idea of a needs
hierarchy.
Wahba and Bridwell reported that there was
little evidence for Maslows ranking of these
needs and even less evidence that these
needs are in a hierarchical order
Other criticisms of Maslows theory note that
his definition of self-actualization is difficult to
test scientifically.
His research on self-actualization was also
based on a very limited sample of individuals,
including people he knew as well as
biographies of famous individuals that Maslow
believed to be self-actualized, such as Albert
Einstein and Eleanor Roosevelt.
Regardless of these criticisms, Maslows
hierarchy of needs represents part of an
important shift in psychology. Rather than
focusing on abnormal behavior and
development, Maslows humanistic
psychology was focused on the
development of healthy individuals.
Thank you.

Theories of child
development
Psychoanalytic Cognitive Behavioural Social
Sigmund Freud
Erick Erickson
Jean Paiget Watson
Pavlov
Skinner
Maslow
Bandura
John Bowbly
Anisworth
Social Learning Theory

Albert Bandura was
born December 4,
1925, in the small
town of Mundare in
northern Alberta,
Canada.
Adolescent
Aggression, in
1959.
Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not
to mention hazardous, if people had to rely
solely on the effects of their own actions to
inform them what to do. Fortunately, most
human behavior is learned observationally
through modeling: from observing others one
forms an idea of how new behaviors are
performed, and on later occasions this coded
information serves as a guide for action."
-Albert Bandura, Social Learning Theory,
1977
What is Social Learning Theory?

The social learning theory proposed by Albert
Bandura has become perhaps the most
influential theory of learning and development.
While rooted in many of the basic concepts of
traditional learning theory, Bandura believed
that direct reinforcement could not account for
all types of learning.



His theory added a social element,
arguing that people can learn new
information and behaviors by watching
other people.
Known as observational learning (or
modeling), this type of learning can be
used to explain a wide variety of
behaviors.
Basic Social Learning Concepts
Observational Learning

In his famous "Bobo doll" studies, Bandura
demonstrated that children learn and imitate behaviors
they have observed in other people.

The children in Banduras studies observed an adult
acting violently toward a Bobo doll. When the children
were later allowed to play in a room with the Bobo doll,
they began to imitate the aggressive actions they had
previously observed.



Bandura identified three basic models of
observational learning:
A live model, which involves an actual
individual demonstrating or acting out a
behavior.
A verbal instructional model, which involves
descriptions and explanations of a behavior.
A symbolic model, which involves real or
fictional characters displaying behaviors in
books, films, television programs, or online
media.
Intrinsic Reinforcement
Mental states are important to learning.


He described intrinsic reinforcement as a form of
internal reward, such as pride, satisfaction, and a
sense of accomplishment.

This emphasis on internal thoughts and cognitions
helps connect learning theories to cognitive
developmental theories.

While many textbooks place social learning theory with
behavioral theories, Bandura himself describes his
approach as a social cognitive theory.



Learning does not necessarily lead to a
change in behavior.

While behaviorists believed that learning
led to a permanent change in behavior,
observational learning demonstrates that
people can learn new information without
demonstrating new behaviors.

The Modeling Process
Not all observed behaviors are effectively
learned. Factors involving both the model
and the learner can play a role in whether
social learning is successful.
Certain requirements and steps must
also be followed.
The following steps are involved in the
observational learning and modeling
process:

Attention:
In order to learn, you need to be paying
attention. Anything that detracts your
attention is going to have a negative
effect on observational learning.
If the model interesting or there is a novel
aspect to the situation, you are far more
likely to dedicate your full attention to
learning.

Retention:
The ability to store information is also an
important part of the learning process.
Retention can be affected by a number of
factors, but the ability to pull up information
later and act on it is vital to observational
learning.
Reproduction:
Once you have paid attention to the model and
retained the information, it is time to
actually perform the behavior you
observed. Further practice of the learned
behavior leads to improvement and skill
advancement.

Motivation:
Finally, in order for observational learning
to be successful, you have to be
motivated to imitate the behavior that has
been modeled.

Reinforcement and punishment play an
important role in motivation.
For example, if you see another student
rewarded with extra credit for being to
class on time, you might start to show up
a few minutes early each day.

Social Child Development Theories
There is a great deal of research on the
social development of children.
John Bowbly proposed one of the earliest
theories of social development.
Bowlby believed that early relationships
with caregivers play a major role in child
development and continue to influence
social relationships throughout life.
John Bowlby - Attachment Theory

Characteristics of Attachment
Bowlby believed that there are
four distinguishing
characteristics of attachment:
Proximity Maintenance -
The desire to be near the
people we are attached to.
Safe Haven - Returning to the
attachment figure for comfort
and safety in the face of a
fear or threat.
Secure Base - The
attachment figure acts as a
base of security from which
the child can explore the
surrounding environment.
Separation Distress -
Anxiety that occurs in the
absence of the attachment
figure.
What is Attachment?

Attachment is a special emotional relationship
that involves an exchange of comfort, care, and
pleasure. The roots of research on attachment
began with Freud's theories about love.


John Bowlby devoted extensive research to the
concept of attachment, describing it as a "lasting
psychological connectedness between human
beings" (Bowlby, 1969, p. 194).

Bowlby shared the psychoanalytic view
that early experiences in childhood have
an important influence on development
and behavior later in life.
Our early attachment styles are
established in childhood through the
infant/caregiver relationship.


Attachment Styles

John Bowlby - Attachment Theory
Ainsworth's "Strange Situation"
Assessment
Attachment Through Life
Secure Attachment
Ambivalent Attachment
Avoidant Attachment
Disorganized Attachment
Ainsworth's "Strange Situation" Assessment
During the 1970's, researcher Mary Ainsworth further
expanded upon Bowlby's groundbreaking work in her now
famous "Strange Situation" study.
Based on these observations, Ainsworth
concluded that there were three major styles
of attachment:
1. Secure attachment,
2. Ambivalent-insecure attachment,
3. Avoidant-insecure attachment.
Researchers Main and Solomon (1986)
added a fourth attachment style known as
Disorganized-insecure attachment.
Secure Attachment

Do not experience significant
distress when separated from
caregivers.
When frightened, these
children will seek comfort
from the parent or caregiver.
Contact initiated by a parent
is readily accepted by
securely attached children
and they greet the return of a
parent with positive behavior.
Parents of securely attached children tend to
play more with their children. Additionally,
these parents react more quickly to their
children's needs and are generally more
responsive to their children than the parents of
insecurely attached children.

Studies have shown that securely attached
children are more empathetic during later
stages of childhood.

These children are also described as less
disruptive, less aggressive, and more mature
than children with ambivalent or avoidant
attachment styles.


Ambivalent Attachment
Children who are ambivalently
attached tend to be
extremely suspicious of
strangers.
These children display
considerable distress when
separated from a parent or
caregiver, but do not seem
reassured or comforted by
the return of the parent.
In some cases, the child
might passively reject the
parent by refusing comfort,
or may openly display direct
aggression toward the
parent.
According to Cassidy and Berlin (1994),
ambivalent attachment is relatively uncommon,
with only 7% to 15% of infants in the United
States displaying this attachment style.

In a review of ambivalent attachment literature,
Cassidy and Berlin also found that
observational research consistently links
ambivalent-insecure attachment to low
maternal availability.

As these children grow older, teachers often
describe them as clingy and over-dependent.


Avoidant Attachment
Children with avoidant
attachment styles tend to
avoid parents and
caregivers.
This avoidance often
becomes especially
pronounced after a period of
absence.
These children might not
reject attention from a
parent, but neither do they
seek our comfort or contact.
Children with an avoidant
attachment show no
preference between a parent
and a complete stranger.


These individuals do not invest much emotion
in relationships and experience little distress
when a relationship ends. They often avoid
intimacy by using excuses (such as long work
hours), or may fantasize about other people
during sex.
Research has also shown that adults with an
avoidant attachment style are more accepting
and likely to engage in casual sex (Feeney, J.,
Noller, and Patty 1993).
Other common characteristics include a failure
to support partners during stressful times and
an inability to share feelings, thoughts, and
emotions with partners.
Disorganized Attachment
Children with a disorganized-
insecure attachment style
show a lack of clear
attachment behavior.
Their actions and responses
to caregivers are often a mix
of behaviors, including
avoidance or resistance.
These children are described
as displaying dazed behavior,
sometimes seeming either
confused or apprehensive in
the presence of a caregiver.


Main and Solomon (1986) proposed that
inconsistent behavior on the part of
parents might be a contributing factor in
this style of attachment.

In later research, Main and Hesse (1990)
argued that parents who act as figures of
both fear and reassurance to a child
contribute to a disorganized attachment
style. Because the child feels both
comforted and frightened by the parent,
confusion results.
More About Child Development
There are a number of important issues that
have been debated throughout the history of
developmental psychology.
The major questions include the following: Is
development due more to genetics or
environment?
Does development occur slowly and smoothly,
or do changes happen in stages?
Do early childhood experiences have the
greatest impact on development, or are later
events equally important?
Nature vs. Nurture
The debate over the relative contributions of
inheritance and the environment is one of the
oldest issues in both philosophy and
psychology.

Philosophers such as Plato and Descartes
supported the idea that some ideas are inborn.
On the other hand, thinkers such as John
Locke argued for the concept of tabula rosa
a belief that the mind is a blank slate at birth,
with experience determining our knowledge.



Early Experience vs. Later Experience

Are we more affected by events that occur in
early childhood, or do later events play an
equally important role?


Psychoanalytic theorists tend to focus upon
events that occur in early childhood. According to
Freud, much of a childs personality is
completely established by the age of five. If this
is indeed the case, those who have experienced
deprived or abusive childhoods might never
adjust or develop normally.


In contrast to this view, researchers have
found that the influence of childhood
events does not necessarily have a
dominating effect over behavior
throughout the life. Many people with
less-that-perfect childhoods go on to
develop normally into well-adjusted
adults.

Continuity vs. Discontinuity
A third major issue in developmental psychology
is that of continuity. Does change occur smoothly
over time, or through a series of predetermined
steps?

Psychoanalytic theories are those influenced by
the work of Sigmund Freud, who believed in the
importance of the unconscious mind and
childhood experiences. Freuds contribution to
developmental theory was his proposal that
development occurs through a series of
psychosexual stages.



Theorist Erik Erikson expanded upon
Freuds ideas by proposing a stage
theory of psychosocial development.
Eriksons theory focused on conflicts
that arise at different stages of
development and, unlike Freuds
theory, Erikson described development
throughout the lifespan.
Learning theories focus on how the
environment impacts behavior.
Important learning processes include
classical conditioning, operant
conditioning, and social learning.
In each case, behavior is shaped by the
interaction between the individual and
the environment.
Cognitive theories focus on the
development of mental processes,
skills, and abilities.
Examples of cognitive theories include
Piaget's theory of cognitive
development.
Abnormal Behavior vs. Individual
Differences
One of the biggest concerns of many parents is
whether or not their child is developing normally.
Developmental guidelines chart the age at which
certain skills and abilities emerge, creating
concern when a child falls slightly behind the
norm.
While developmental theories have historically
focused upon deficits in behavior, focus on
individual differences in development is
becoming more common.


Psychoanalytic theories are traditionally
focused upon abnormal behavior, so
developmental theories in this area tend to
describe deficits in behavior.
Learning theories rely more on the
environment's unique impact on an individual,
so individual differences are an important
component of these theories.
Today, psychologists look at both norms and
individual differences when describing child
development.
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Main, M., & Hesse, E. (1990). Parents' unresolved traumatic experiences are related
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Attachment in the Preschool Years: Theory, Research, and Intervention, 161-182.
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Books.

Bowlby, J. (1979). The Making and Breaking of Affectional Bonds. London:
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