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MASONRY
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Contents
• Masonry materials
• Types of masonry units
• Manufacture of bricks
and blocks
• Characteristics and
testing of bricks
• Mortar for
brickwork/masonry work
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MASONRY
Type of construction whereby units are laid together to
form a structure
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Masonry
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MASONRY UNIT
BLOCK
STONE BRICK
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MASONRY STRUCTURE
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MASONRY STRUCTURES
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DESIRABLE
CHARACTERISTICS
• Strength
• Durability
• Resistance to water, noise
and fire
• Aesthetic
• Other special requirements
e.g. blast resistance
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BRICKS
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Bricks
• Bricks are produced in
many formats: solid,
perforated and hollow
End web
Cell
Solid
End web cavities exceeding 25
Hollow % of total volume of
brick.
Frogge
Perforate d
d volume of indentations
holes 25 % of gross must not exceed 20 %
volume of the brick of gross volume. 13
Types of Clay Bricks
Three types of clay bricks:
1) Common – general use; not design to provide
good finish or high strength; usually plastered,
non-load bearing
2) Facing – for attractive appearance; no cracks;
may or may not be load bearing; durable
3) Engineering – good strength and durability;
high density; well fired (load bearing walls,
retaining walls, sewers, embankments etc.)
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Common Brick
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Facing Brick
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Facing Brick
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ENGINEERING BRICK
Column
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CLAY BRICKS
Clay bricks continue to be the
most important building units
Raw materials are clay or shale
Efficient material to use in terms
of their energy consumption
Strong and durable
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Clay for Brick-making
A variety clay composition and minerology
deposited at different geological period; from
soft sticky mud to shale
Hence bricks are differ in their properties-
colour, texture, strength, density and durability
Only 30-40% of brick making clay are clay
minerals
Clay minerals-size less than 2 microns; the
amount and particle size present in the clay
affect the cohesiveness, forming characteristics,
drying and firing properties of the clay
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Cont.
Too much clay can result in high drying
shrinkage; adding sand can reduce drying
shrinkage
Clays are hydrated aluminosilicates
(predominance is silica and alumina); the main
minerals are: kaolinite, Illite, montmorillonite
Other mineral present in clays are: potash (K2O),
Lime (CaO), Soda (Na2O), Magnesium (MgO)
and iron (FeO, Fe2O3)
Chemical analysis may be undertaken, together
with minerological examination can assist in
identifying the presence of chemicals and clay21
Manufacturing of clay bricks
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Stiff mud process
PUG MILL Grind clay
Preparation
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MOULDING
Process of giving
shape to the bricks
A variety of shaping
methods that
depends on the
moisture content
and consistency of
the clay
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Semi Dry Process
Moisture content @ 10%
Granular consistency, pressed in 4 stages
After pressing be textured or sand faced
Can be fired without going through
drying stage
Smooth finish
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Stiff Plastic Process
Moisture content @15%
Extruded and then compacted into a
mould under high pressure
Many engineering bricks are made this
way; clay containing large quantity of iron
oxide help the fusion during firing
Smooth finish
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Wire Cut Process
Moisture content @ 20%
Extruding a column of clay through a die
and cut by tensioned wire
Extrusion to a size which allow dry and
firing shrinkage
Perforated bricks are made this way, the
perforation being formed during
extrusion
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Soft Mud Process
Moisture content @ 30%
Soft clay from shallow deposit
Rolled in sand or sawdust and pressed
manually into a mould
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DRYING OF BRICKS
Green bricks contain a considerable amount of
moisture depending on the shaping process
The moisture content has to be further reduced before
firing can be carried out
Objectives:
Enable brick to be stacked higher in the kiln
Avoid too much shrinkage happening in the kiln
which might cause the stack to become unstable
Enable firing temperature to be increased more
rapidly
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Drying of Bricks (cont.)
Important for green bricks with high moisture
content;
Temperature being increased while humidity
progressively decreased
Low rate of drying to avoid stresses that cause
cracking and distortion
Dried until approximately at critical moisture
content (leather-hard)
Sufficiently rigid and strong for handling and
stacking
Chamber or tunnel dryers takes 1 or 2 days,
natural drying takes 6 weeks 32
FIRING OF BRICKS
Changes their physical structure and give them
good mechanical properties and resistance to
water
Sintering of clay increases the strength and
decreases the soluble salt without loss of shape
Silica and alumina do not melt, they are fused
together with metallic oxides
THREE stages of firing:
1) 100 °C – water evaporation
2) 400 ºC – burning of carbonaceous matter
3) 900 – 1200 °C – sintering of clay 33
Firing of Bricks (cont.)
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Colour and texture
• Variety of colours:
red, yellow, brown etc
• Depending on mineral
content and firing
temperature
• Variety of textures:
smooth, rough, bark
face etc.
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Density
• Varies from 1300 – 2200 kg/m3
• Important for thermal and
acoustic property of wall
– Heavier wall better sound and
thermal insulation
– Solid units have higher thermal
conductivity
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Size
Bed face
Header face
Stretcher
102.5
face
mm
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Bed Head joint
mm joint
215
mm
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Table 1: Limits of sizes (MS/BS)
Maximum Minimum
(mm) (mm)
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Test Methods for Dimension
Dimensional deviations
• Overall measurements of 24 bricks
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Compressive strength
• Most important mechanical properties
• Measure of quality
• Use for classifying bricks
• Varies in accordance to materials and
manufacturing methods
• Available in strengths of 5 – 100 N/mm2
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Test Methods for Bricks
Compressive strength
• Select 10 bricks from a stack
• Bricks are immersed in water for 24 hours before
testing
• Faces are capped between 3 mm ply sheets or packed
before testing to reduce the effects of roughness,
lack of plane and platen effects
• Bricks loaded normal to its bed face. Tested until
failure. Compressive strength is calculated as the
average of 10 bricks as below:
Compressive strength
maximum load
= N/mm2
bed face area
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Compressive Strength
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Compressive Machine
Water Absorption
• Water absorption is the quantity of water
that could be absorbed by the unit
• Indicate porosity
• Varies widely, clay units from 4.5 to 21%,
calcium silicate units from 7 to 21% and
concrete units from 7 to 10%
• Clay bricks which absorb between 4.5
and 7.0% of their weight can be used as
damp-proof course material
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Water Absorption
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Water Absorption
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24 hours cold immersion test
(ASTM C67)
– Select 5 bricks from a stack
– Dry bricks in the oven @110ºC for not less than 24 hrs
– Cool the specimen and weigh each brick (Wd)
– Immerse the dry bricks in clean water at 15 to 30ºC
for 24 hours
– Remove the bricks and weigh each brick (Ws)
– Calculate the absorption of each brick as follows:
Absorption % =
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5 hours Boiling Test
• Select 10 bricks.
• Heat at 110 °C for not less
than 48 hours – dry bricks.
• When cool, weigh the bricks
and record the dry mass (wd)
• Then boil for 5 hours and then
allow to cool naturally in the
water a minimum of 16 hours
and a maximum of 19 hours.
• Weigh each brick and record
the wet mass (ws)
• Water absorption A %= W - Wd
100 s
Wd
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Classification of clay bricks according
to compressive strengths and
absorption (BS)
Designations Average Average
compressive absorption not
strength not less greater than (%
than (N/mm2) by weight)
Engineering A 70 4.5
Engineering B 50 7.0
Damp-proof 5 4.5
course 1
Damp-proof 5 7.0
course 2 50
Characteristic flexural strengths and levels of water
absorption (BS 5628 Pt. 1, 1985)
Characteristic flexural strength, fkx N/mm2
Plane of failure parallel Plane of failure perpendicular to
to bed joints bed joints
(i) (ii) and (iv) (i) (ii) and (iv)
Mortar (iii) (iii)
designation
• Water tightness
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Initial Rate of Suction
• Select 10 bricks
• Dry bricks in the oven
• When cool, weigh the
bricks and record the dry
mass (m1).
• Then immerse the dry
brick in water for 1 min.
Depth of immersion is 3±
1mm
• After 1 min remove the
wet bricks and weigh (m2)
• Calculate initial rate of
suction using formula
below:
1000(m - m )
2
IRS (kg/m /min) = 2 1
A
A is the area of the immersed face of the brick in mm2
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Efflorescence and Soluble Salt
Content
• Efflorescence is the white
deposits (salts) on brick
surfaces
• Salts from bricks, ground
and environment
• Usually occurs on new
brickwork
• Affect appearance but
often harmless
• Bricks exceeding the
“heavy”category should
be rejected
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Efflorescence and Soluble Salt
Content
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Efflorescence and Soluble Salt
Content
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Calcium Silicate Bricks
(sand-lime)
• Consists of 90-95%
sand (majority
passing 1.15 mm
sieve)
• lime (aggregate
lime ratio by
weight of 10 – 20 :
1)
• water
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Manufacturing
• Size
• Colour
• Water absorption
• Strength
• Shrinkage
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Size and Colour
• Size – similar to
clay bricks
• Colour –
Calcium silicate
and are usually
light grey and
other paler
shades
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Paving Units
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Water Absorption
• Varies between 6 to 16 %
• Absorption is less
relevance for calcium
silicate and concrete units
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Strength
• Compressive strength is
the criteria
• Typically strength varies
from 14 – 27.5 N/mm2
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Compressive Strengths Classes and
Requirements of Calcium Silicate
(BS187)
Designations Class Mean compressive Shrinkage not
strength of 10 bricks greater than
not less than (%)
(N/mm2)
Load-bearing 7 48.5 0.040
brick or facing 6 41.5
brick 5 34.5
4 27.5
3 20.5
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CONCRETE BRICK AND
BLOCK
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Blocks
• Three main
types of blocks
Solid blocks – blocks
containing no formed
cavities
Hollow blocks – blocks
containing cavities which
fully penetrate the block
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Block
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Concrete Bricks and Blocks
Standard blocks
Screening 73
blocks
Manufacturing of Concrete
Blocks Cement,
Aggregates are stored aggregate, water,
separately by density Mix is fed
pigments and other into a
and gradation, then admixtures are
weighed and mould and
combined to form consolidate
transported by conveyor damp but not wet
to mixer. d by
mix. vibration
Curing Ejectio
n
Curing is done under
saturated conditions.
Units in sets of
Temperature may be raised to
three ejected
accelerate hydration (steam
from moulds.
curing) for 18 hours, or 74
autoclaving (high pressure)
Manufacturing
Solid 75
100
7.0 – 21.0
Solid or cellular or 140
hollow 150
190
200
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215
Glass Blocks
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Stone
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Stones
Most common
• Limestone
• Granite
• Marble
• Slate
Marble quarry 79
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Applications
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MORTAR FOR
BRICKWORK
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MASONRY MORTAR
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MORTAR
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MORTAR
A mixture of materials for jointing
masonry units
Made up of sand, a binder such as
cement or lime, and water
The thickness of mortar in brickwork
is normally 10 mm thick and should
not exceed 15 mm because of high
shrinkage
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FUNCTION OF MORTAR
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REQUIREMENTS
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NON-HYDRAULIC LIME
Insufficient setting and hardening strength to
make them as a total binder
Added as a binder constituent to produce
cement: lime: sand mortar
Lime has good water retentive properties
which give good workability characteristics
and promote bonding of the Portland cement
Have better resistance to rain penetration
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AIR-ENTRAINERS
As an alternative to lime as a binder supplement, the
reduced volume can be made with minute bubbles by
adding air-entraining agent
In powder/liquid form but must be intended for
mortar
Air entrainment must not exceed 12% of the volume
because it reduces the bond strength
At 15% or above the bonding performance is seriously
impart
Induces good plasticity/workability characteristics
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Linear Thermal Movement of Masonry unit and Mortar
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Moisture movement and Thermal properties of Common
Building Materials
Material Reversible moisture Irreversible moisture Coeff. Of Thermal
movement movement Exp. (x10-6/ K)
Timber +- 0.5-2.5 _ 4 - 70
Steel - _ 10 - 18
Concrete +-0.02-0.10 -(0.03-0.08) 7 - 14
Dense concrete agg. +-0.02-0.04 -(0.02-0.06) 6 – 12
products
Lightweight agg. +-0.02-0.06 -(0.02-0.06) 8 - 12
conc.
Aerated (autoclave) +-0.02-0.03 -(0.05-0.06) 8
products
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