1

FLUID MECHANICS (CHE 213)

CHAPTER 2
PRESSURE AND HEAD


2
OBJECTIVE

To acquire fundamental concepts pressure and head

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this chapter, student should be able to:

i. Define and derive Pascals Law
ii. Derive pressure variation with height in a fluid at rest
iii. Determine the pressure at various locations in a fluid at rest
iv. Differentiate between absolute and gage pressure
v. Explain the concept of manometers
vi. Apply appropriate equations to determine pressures or
pressure difference using different types of manometers
vii. State advantages and disadvantages of manometer
viii. Convert pressure in terms of head and vice versa
3
Pressure is defined as a compressive stress, or compressive force per unit
area.
In a stationary fluid (liquid or gas) the compressive force per unit area is
the same in all directions.
In a solid or moving fluid, the compressive force per unit area at some
point is not necessarily the same in all directions.



Units: newtons per square meter (Nm
-2
or kgm
-1
s
-2
)

The same unit is also known as a Pascal Pa where 1 Pa = 1 Nm
-2
Also frequently used is the alternative SI unit the bar, where 1 bar = 10
5

Nm
-2
.
Dimensions: ML
-1
T
-2
A
F
= p or
boundary of Area
exerted Force
= essure Pr
2.1 PRESSURE
4
By considering a small element of fluid in the form of a triangular prism which
contains a point p, we can establish a relationship between the three pressures p
x

in the x direction, p
y
in the y direction and p
s
in the in the direction normal to the
sloping face.
2.2 PASCALS LAW FOR PRESSURE AT A POINT
5
The fluid is at rest, so we know that all force are acting at right angles to
the surfaces i.e
p
s
acts perpendicular to surface ABCD
p
x
acts perpendicular to surface ABFE and
p
y
acts perpendicular to surface CDEF
And, as the fluid is at rest, in equilibrium, the sum of the forces in any
direction is zero.
2.2 PASCALS LAW FOR PRESSURE AT A POINT
6
Considering the x-direction:
Force due to p
x
Fx
x
= p
x
x area ABFE = p
x
oyoz;
Component of force in the x-direction due to p
s
,
Fx
s
= -(p
s
x area ABCD) x sin u

= -p
s
= -p
s
oyoz


Since sin u = oy/os
Component of force in the x-direction due to p
y
,
Fx
y
= 0
To be at rest (in equilibrium)
Fx
x
+ Fx
s
+ Fx
y
= 0
p
x
oyoz + -p
s
oyoz = 0
p
x
= p
s
s
y
z s
2.2 PASCALS LAW FOR PRESSURE AT A POINT
7
Similarly, in y-direction:
Force due to p
y
Fy
y
= p
y
x area CDEF = p
y
oxoz;
Component of force due to p
s
Fy
s
= -(p
s
x area ABCD) cos u

= -p
s
= - p
s
oxoz
Cos u = ox/os
Component of force due to p
x
,
Fy
x
= 0
Force due to gravity,
Weight of element = -specific weight x volume

= -
s
x
z s
z y x
2
1
g
2.2 PASCALS LAW FOR PRESSURE AT A POINT
8
To be at rest (in equilibrium)
Fy
y
+ Fy
s
+ Fy
x
+ weight = 0

p
y
oxoz +(-p
s
oxoz) + 0 + - = 0

Since ox, oy, oz are all small quantities, oxoyoz is very small and
consider negligible, hence
p
y
= p
s
Thus, p
s
= p
x
= p
y
z y x
2
1
g
2.2 PASCALS LAW FOR PRESSURE AT A POINT
9
Considering the prismatic element again, p
s
is the pressure on a plane
at any angle u, the x, y, and z directions could be at any orientation.
The element is so small that it can be considered a point so the derived
expression p
s
= p
x
= p
y
indicates that pressure at any point is the same
in all directions. (The proof may be extended to include the z axis).
Pressure at any point is the same in all directions. This is known as
Pascals law and applies to fluid at rest.
2.2 PASCALS LAW FOR PRESSURE AT A POINT
10
In the figure we can see an element of fluid
which is a vertical column consists of constant
cross sectional area, A, surrounded by the
same fluid of mass density .
The pressure at the bottom of the cylinder is p
1

at level z
1
, and at the top is p
2
at level z
2
.
The fluid is at rest and in equilibrium so all the
forces in the vertical direction sum to zero.
The forces acting are
Force due to p
1
on area A acting up = p
1
A,
Force due to p
2
on area A acting down = p
2
A
2.3 VARIATION OF PRESSURE VERICALLY IN A
FLUID UNDER GRAVITY
Vertical elemental cylinder of fluid
p
2
A
p
1
A
Area A
z
2
z
1
Fluid
Density,
11
Force due to weight of the element = mg
= Mass density x g x Volume
= gA(z
2
-z
1
).
Taking upward forces as positive, in equilibrium we have
p
1
A - p
2
A - gA(z
2
-z
1
) = 0
p
1
p
2
= g(z
2
-z
1
)
p = g(z
2
-z
1
)
Thus in any fluid under gravitational attraction, pressure decreases with
increase of height z.

2.3 VARIATION OF PRESSURE VERICALLY IN A
FLUID UNDER GRAVITY
12
Consider the horizontal cylindrical element of fluid in the figure below,
with cross sectional area A, in a fluid of density , pressure p
1
at the left
hand end and pressure p
2
at the right hand end.
2.4 EQUALITY OF PRESSURE AT THE SAME
LEVEL IN A STATIC FLUID
p
2
A p
1
A
Area A
Fluid density,
Weight, mg
Face L
Face R
Horizontal elemental cylinder of fluid
13
The fluid is at equilibrium so the sum of the forces acting in the x-direction
is zero.
p
1
A = p
2
A
p
1
= p
2
***Pressure in the horizontal direction is constant
This result is the same for any continuous fluid. It is still true for two
connected tanks which appear not to have any direct connection, for
example consider the tank in the figure below.
2.4 EQUALITY OF PRESSURE AT THE SAME
LEVEL IN A STATIC FLUID
z z
Q
R
P
L
Two tanks of different cross-section connected by a pipe
14
We have show above that p
L
= p
R
and from the equation for a vertical
pressure change we have
p
L
= p
P
+ gz and p
R
= p
Q
+ gz
so p
P
+ gz = p
Q
+ gz
p
P
= p
Q

This shown that the pressures at the two equal levels, P and Q are the
same.
2.4 EQUALITY OF PRESSURE AT THE SAME
LEVEL IN A STATIC FLUID
15
In a static fluid of constant density we have the relationship,



This can be integrated to give, p = - gz + constant

In a liquid with a free surface the pressure at any depth z measured from
the free surface so that z = - h (see the figure below)
g - =
dz
dp
2.5 PRESSURE AND HEAD
Fluid head measurement in a tank
y
z
x
h
16
This gives the pressure
p = gh + constant
At the surface of fluids we are normally concerned with, the pressure is the
atmospheric pressure, p
atmospheric
.
So, p = gh + p
atmospheric


As we live constantly under the pressure of the atmosphere, and everything
else exists under this pressure, it is convenient (and often done) to take
atmospheric pressure as the datum. So we quote pressure as above or below
atmospheric.
Pressure quoted in this way is known as gauge pressure
Gauge pressure is
p
gauge
= gh
2.5 PRESSURE AND HEAD
17
The lower limit of any pressure is zero - that is the pressure in a perfect
vacuum. Pressure measured above this datum is known as absolute
pressure

Absolute pressure is
p
absolute
= gh + p
atmosphere
Absolute pressure = Gauge pressure + Atmospheric pressure

As g is (approx.) constant, the gauge pressure can be given by stating
the vertical height of any fluid of density which is equal to this
pressure.
p = gh

The vertical height is known as head of fluid.
Note: If pressure is quoted in head, the density of the fluid must also
be given.
2.5 PRESSURE AND HEAD
18
A cylinder contains a fluid at a gauge pressure of 350 kNm
-2
. Express this
pressure in terms of a head of,
(a) water (
H
2
0
= 1000 kgm
-3
),
(b) mercury (relative density 13.6).
(c) what would be the absolute pressure in the cylinder if the
atmospheric pressure is 101.3 kNm
-2
?
EXAMPLE 2.1 - PRESSURE AND HEAD
19
The relationship between pressure and
head is used to measure pressure with
a manometer
(also know as a liquid gauge).
2.6 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT BY
MANOMETER
20
The simplest manometer is a tube, open at the top, which is attached
to the top of a vessel containing liquid at a pressure (higher than
atmospheric) to be measured. An example can be seen in the figure
below. This simple device is known as a Piezometer tube. As the tube
is open to the atmosphere the pressure measured is relative to
atmospheric so is gauge pressure.

2.6.1 THE PIEZOMETER TUBE MANOMETER
h
1
A

B

h
2
A simple piezometer tube manometer
21
Pressure at A = pressure due to column of liquid above A
p
A
= gh
1

Pressure at B = pressure due to column of liquid above B

p
B
= gh
2

This method can only be used for liquids (i.e. not for gases) and only when
the liquid height is convenient to measure. It must not be too small or too
large and pressure changes must be detectable.
2.6.1 THE PIEZOMETER TUBE MANOMETER
22
What is the maximum gauge pressure of water that can be measured by means
of a piezometer tube 2 m high?
And if the liquid has a relative density of 8.5, what would the maximum
measurable gauge pressure?
EXAMPLE 2.2 - PIEZOMETER
23
Using a U-Tube enables the pressure of both liquids and gases to be
measured with the same instrument.
The U is connected as in the figure below and filled with a fluid called
the manometric fluid. The fluid whose pressure is being measured should
have a mass density less than that of the manometric fluid and the two
fluids should not be able to mix readily - that is, they must be immiscible.
2.6.2 THE U-TUBE MANOMETER
Fluid P, mass density,
A U-Tube manometer
Manometric fluid Q, mass density,
man
h
2
h
1
A
B C
D
24
2.6.2 THE U-TUBE MANOMETER
Pressure in a continuous static fluid is the same at any horizontal level so,
Pressure at B = Pressure at C
p
B
= p
C

For the left hand arm
p
B
= Pressure p
A
at A + Pressure due to depth h
1

of fluid P.
= p
A
+ gh
1
For the right hand arm
p
C
= Pressure p
D
at D + Pressure due to depth h
2
of
manometric fluid Q.

But p
D
= Atmospheric pressure = Zero gauge pressure

and so p
C
= 0 +
man
gh
2
since p
B
= p
C
,
p
A
+ gh
1
=
man
gh
2
p
A
=
man
gh
2
- gh
1
25
If the fluid is being measured is a gas, the density will probably be
very low in comparison to the density of the manometric fluid
i.e.
man
>> . In this case the term can be neglected, and the gauge
pressure is given by

p
A
=
man
gh
2


2.6.2 THE U-TUBE MANOMETER
26
A U-tube manometer similar to that shown in figure is used to measure that
gauge pressure of a fluid P of density = 800 kgm
-3
. If the density of the
liquid Q is 13.6 x 10
3
kgm
-3
, what will be the gauge pressure at A if,

(a) h
1
= 0.5 m and D is 0.9 m above BC?
(b) h
1
= 0.1 m and D is 0.2 m below BC?
EXAMPLE 2.3 - U-TUBE MANOMETER
27
Using a U-tube manometer to measure gauge pressure of fluid density = 700
kgm
-3
and the manometric fluid is mercury, with a relative density of 13.6.
What is the gauge pressure if:

(a) h
1
= 0.4 m and h
2
= 0.9 m?
(b) h
1
stayed the same but h
2
= -0.1 m?
EXAMPLE 2.4 - U-TUBE MANOMETER
28
If the U-tube manometer is connected to a pressurized vessel at two
points, the pressure difference between these two points can be measured.
2.6.3 MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE
DIFFERENCE USING U-TUBE MANOMETER
Fluid density,
h
b
h
a
h

A

B

C

D

E

Manometric fluid density,
man
29
If the manometer is arrange as in the figure above, then

Pressure at C = Pressure at D
p
C
= p
D
p
C
= p
A
+ gh
a

p
D
= p
B
+ g(h
b
- h) +
man
gh
p
A
+ gh
a
= p
B
+ g(h
b
- h) +
man
gh

Giving the pressure difference
p
A
- p
B
= g(h
b
- h) +
man
gh gh
a


Again, if the fluid whose pressure difference is being measured is a gas and

man
>> , then the terms involving can be neglected, so
p
A
- p
B
=
man
gh


2.6.3 MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE
DIFFERENCE USING U-TUBE MANOMETER
30
Two pipes containing
the same fluid of density
= 990 kg m
-3
are
connected using a U-
tube manometer. What
is the pressure between
the two pipes if the
manometer contains
fluid of relative density
13.6?
EXAMPLE 2.5 - U-TUBE MANOMETER
Fluid density,
C

Manometric fluid density,
man
h = 0.5 m

h
a
= 1.5
m

h
b
= 0.75 m

E

A

B

D

Fluid density,
31
The "U"-tube manometer has the disadvantage that the change in height of
the liquid in both sides must be read. This can be avoided by making the
diameter of one side very large compared to the other. In this case the side
with the large area moves very little when the small area side move
considerably more.
2.6.4 ADVANCES TO THE U-TUBE
MANOMETER
32
Assume the manometer is arranged as above to measure the pressure
difference of a gas of (negligible density) and that pressure difference is
p
1
-p
2
. If the datum line indicates the level of the manometric fluid when
the pressure difference is zero and the height differences when pressure is
applied is as shown, the volume of liquid transferred from the left side to
the right = z
2
x (d
2
/ 4)
And the fall in level of the left side is

2.6.4 ADVANCES TO THE U-TUBE
MANOMETER
( )
2
2
2
2
2
1
D / d z =
4 / D
) 4 / d ( z
=
side left of area
moved volume
= z
33
We know from the theory of the "U" tube manometer that the height
different in the two columns gives the pressure difference so,





if D is very much larger than d then (d/D)
2
is very small so p
1
p
2
= gz
2

So only one reading need to be taken to measure the pressure difference.
( )
( )
p - p g(z z )
g z d / D z
gz d / D
1 2 1 2
2
2 2
2
2
1
= +
(
= +

(
= +

2.6.4 ADVANCES TO THE U-TUBE
MANOMETER
If the pressure to be measured is very small then tilting the arm provides
a convenient way of obtaining a larger (more easily read) movement of
the manometer. The above arrangement with a tilted arm is shown in the
figure below.


34
2.6.4 ADVANCES TO THE U-TUBE
MANOMETER
d
p
1
z
2
z
1

1
2
p
2
x

Datum line

D
35
The pressure difference is still given by the height change of the
manometric fluid but by placing the scale along the line of the tilted arm
and taking this reading large movements will be observed. The pressure
difference is then given by,

p
1
- p
2
= g (z
1
+ z
2
)

= g [[x

(d/D)
2
]+ x sin]

= gx[(d/D)
2

+ sin)]


if D is very much larger than d then (d/D)
2
is very small so p
1
p
2
= g x
sin


The sensitivity to pressure change can be increased further by a greater
inclination of the manometer arm, alternatively the density of the
manometric fluid may be changed.

2.6.4 ADVANCES TO THE U-TUBE
MANOMETER
( )
2 2
2
1 1
2
D d
z = x or z = x d/ D
4 4
z = x sin
36
An inclined tube manometer consists of a vertical cylinder 35 mm diameter.
At the bottom of this is connected a tube 5 mm in diameter inclined upward
at an angle of 15 to the horizontal, the top of this tube is connected to an air
duct. The vertical cylinder is open to the air and the manometric fluid has
relative density 0.785. Determine the pressure in the air duct if the
manometric fluid moved 50 mm along the inclined tube.


EXAMPLE 2.6 - ADVANCES U-TUBE
MANOMETER
D
d
p
1
z
2
z
1
=15
1
2
X = 50 mm

Datum line

p
2
37
Care must be taken when attaching the manometer to vessel, no burrs must be
present around this joint. Burrs would alter the flow causing local pressure
variations to affect the measurement.
Some disadvantages of manometers:
Slow response - only really useful for very slowly varying pressures - no
use at all for fluctuating pressures;
For the "U" tube manometer two measurements must be taken
simultaneously to get the h value. This may be avoided by using a tube
with a much larger cross-sectional area on one side of the manometer
than the other;
It is often difficult to measure small variations in pressure - a different
manometric fluid may be required - alternatively a sloping manometer may
be employed; It cannot be used for very large pressures unless several
manometers are connected in series;
Some advantages of manometers:
They are very simple.
No calibration is required - the pressure can be calculated from first
principles.
2.7 CHOICE OF MANOMETER