MET 210W

Chapter 2 Materials in
Mechanical Design
Properties of Materials:
1. Chemical relate to structure of
material, atomic on!s, etc.
2. Ph"sical response of a material !ue to
interaction #ith $arious forms of energ"
%i.e. magnetic, thermal, etc&.
'. Mechanical response of a material !ue
to an applie! force. Main focus for
Machine Design.
(mportant Mechanical Properties:
Tension Test
) Most important an! common material test for generating mechanical properties.
) Can e loa! $s !isplacement or loa! $ersus strain. *l#a"s con$ert loa! to stress.
E+ample: stress,strain cur$es:
-tress,-train Cur$e for -teel
-
"
.iel! Point, -
"
Tensile -trength, -
u
Elastic /imit
Proportional /imit


= E
Mo!ulus of Elasticit"
-train,
-
t
r
e
s
s
,

-tress -train Cur$e for *luminum

-
"
.iel! -trength, -
"
Tensile -trength, -
u
Elastic /imit
Proportional /imit
Parallel /ines
-train,
-
t
r
e
s
s
,

0ffset strain, usuall" 0.21

Ductilit"
)
The !egree to #hich a material #ill !eform
efore ultimate fracture.

Ductile materials in!icate impen!ing failure.

%1E 2 31&

4rittle materials !on5t %1E 6 31&

7or machine memers su8ect to repeate!

loa!s or shoc9 or impact, use 1E 2 121
1 100 +
/
/ /
Elongation 1
o
o f

=
Ductile materials , e+tensi$e plastic !eformation an!
energ" asorption %toughness& efore fracture
Brittle materials , little plastic !eformation an! lo# energ"
asorption efore failure
Other properties determined from stress strain curve:
-hear -trength Estimates
" us
"
"s
- :3 . -
2
-
-
=
=
.iel! strength in
shear
;ltimate strength
in shear
Poisson5s <atio
<*=>E-
0.23 0.2: for Cast (ron
0.2: 0.'0 for -teel
0.'0 0.'' for *luminum an! Titanium
AL LONGITUDIN
TRANSVERSE

=
o
o f
*?
o
o f
/*T
/
/ /
h
h h

=
Mo!ulus of <igi!it" in -hear
)
Measure of resistance to shear
!eformation.
)
@ali! #ithin the E/*-T(C range of the
material
) (
,
+
=

=
1 2
E
> >
Mo!ulus of Elasticit" a9a .oung5s Mo!ulus %psi& slope of linear region:

=
1 2
1 2
E

2
-
1
A !ifference in tensile stress et#een points 1 an! 2

2
-
1
A !ifference in tensile strain et#een points 1 an! 2
offset use or
A
Py
strength yield Sy
y
% 2 . = = =
.iel! -trength %psi& A onset of permanent !eformation:
Percent Elongation:
% 100

=
o
o f
L
L L
L
o
A original gauge length
L
f
A final gauge length
Percent <e!uction of *rea :
% 100

=
o
f o
A
A A
A
o
A original cross,sectional area
A
f
A final cross,sectional area
A
Pu
S T U Su
u
= = = . .
Tensile -trength %psi& A ma+ stress or pea9 stress sustainale:
PoisonBs <atio %unit less& A ratio of trans$erse to longitu!inal strain:
al longitudin
transverse

=
-ummar": Ce" Material Properties:
Mo!ulus of <esilience %psi& A area un!er stress
strain cur$e up to elastic limit or "iel! strength
E
U
el
el el R
2 2
1
2

= =
Mo!ulus of Toughness %psi& A total area un!er stress
strain cur$e up from 0 to fracture. <elate! to impact
-trength:
curve under Area U
T
=
Misc: fracture stress, proportional limit,
elastic limit, elastic strain, impact
strength, fracture toughness, etc
)D31 A !uctile
)631 A rittle
odulus Shear G = =

1 2
1 2
;ltimate strength in compression:
2
Sy
shear in strength yield Sys
y
= = =
.iel! -trength in shear:
shear in strength ulti!ate Sus
u
= =
;ltimate -trength in shear:
0ther important material properties specific to Pol"mers:
n co!"ressio in strength Ulti!ate Suc
uc
= =
Strength #le$ural
#
=
odulus #le$ural E
#
=
*lso secant strengths, secant mo!ulus,
compression set, stress creep, rela+ation, etc..
) 1 ( 2 + = G E
=ote:
-ummar": Ce" Material Properties:
Example: find yield
strength, ultimate strength
and modulus of elasticity:
Example: find yield strength and ultimate
for material that does not exhibit knee
behavior
E+ample
D*T*
generate!
on MT-
machine:
-u A ultimate
-trength A
E:,F20 psi
-" A .iel!
-trength A
EE,200 psi
.002 A .21
offset
E A .oung5s Mo!ulus A %'E,GE0
10,3H:&I%.00'G , .0011& A H.G EG
1 Elongation A 11.31
E?:
Mo!ulus of <esilience A
area un!er stress,strain
cur$e up to elastic limit
"si
E
el
el el
8 . 96
) 000 , 000 , 10 ( 2
) 000 , 44 (
2 2
1
2 2
= = = =


E?:
Elastic strain appro+: .003 inIin
*ppro+ A HG.F psi J %EG,000&%.113 , .00E'& A 3,1H0 psi
Mo!ulus of Toughness A
;
T
A area un!er stress,
strain cur$e from 0 to
fracture strain.
Kar!ness
)
<esistance of a material to e in!ente! "
an in!enter.

4<(=E// '000 9g loa!

10 mm all
of hole A 4K=

<0CCWE// 100 9g loa! %4 -cale&

1I1GL 4all %4 -cale&
4,-cale for soft materials
C,-cale for har!er metals %Keat treate!& %;se
130 9g loa! #ith !iamon! cone in!enter&
Kar!ness calculate! !irectl" " machine %!epth of in!entation&
Kar!ness Comparison
Kar!ness
$alues in the
ranges K<4
D100 an! K<C
6 20 are not
recommen!e!
;ltimate Tensile -trength
)
Kighest le$el of stress a material can
!e$elop.
)
70< C*<40= -TEE/ 0=/.:
-u M 300 N 4K=
%in P-(, 4K= A 4rinell Kar!ness =umer&
Toughness
)
Toughness is the ailit" of a material to
asor energ" #ithout failure.
)
Parts su8ecte! to impact or shoc9 loa!s
nee! to e tough.
)
Testing: Charp" an! (Oo! tests
)
(mpact energ" !etermine! from the testing
is use! to compare materials
7atigue
)
7ailure mo!e of parts e+periencing
thousan!s or millions of repeate! loa!s.
)
En!urance -trength , a materials
resistance to fatigue. Determine! "
testing.
Creep
)
Progressi$e elongation of a part o$er time.
)
Metals usuall" rePuires a large loa!

usuall" rePuires high temperature

%D .'T
m
&
)
Plastic creep occurs at lo# temperatures
Pol"mers: Creep $s -tress <ela+ation $s. Compression -et relate! ut
measure! !ifferentl"QQ
Mechanical Propert" -ummar"
Property Interpretation
Common or
Related Measure
Strength
*ilit" to resist rea9ing .iel! stress
Stiffness
*ilit" to resist !eformation Mo!ulus of elasticit"
Ductility
Permanent !eformation
efore rea9ing
1Elongation
Toughness
*ilit" to #ithstan! impact or
resist rea9ing
Energ" or #or9
necessar" to fracture
material
Hardness
*ilit" to resist
arasionIscratching
-cores on har!ness
tests
Creep
>ra!ual, continuing
!eformation un!er an
applie! constant stress
Creep strength
Material -election
)
RThe materials selecte! for a !esign often #ill
!etermine the farication processes that can e
use! to manufacture the pro!uct, its
performance characteristics, an! its rec"clailit"
an! en$ironmental impact. *s a result,
engineers shoul! acPuire a roust
un!erstan!ing of material characteristics an! the
criteria that one shoul! use in ma9ing material
selections.L
, @olan!, Engineering " Design, *!!ison,Wesle", 1HHH, pg. E00
Material Categories
)
Metals iron, steel, aluminum, copper, magnesium,
nic9el, titanium, Oinc
)
Pol"mers thermoplastics S thermosets
)
Ceramics
)
Composites Caron fier, Ce$lar S fierglass,
#oo! an! reinforce! concrete
-teel
)
Wi!el" use! for machine elements

Kigh strength

Kigh stiffness

Durale

<elati$e ease of farication

)
*llo" of (ron, Caron, Manganese S 1 or
more other significant elements.
%-ulfur, Phosphorus, -ilicon, =ic9el, Chromium,
Mol"!enum an! @ana!ium&
Caron
)
Caron has huge effect on strength,
har!ness an! !uctilit" of steel.
Caron Content
-trength S Kar!ness
Ductilit" T
All these curves are
steels.
What do they have in
common?
What is different?
-teel Designation -"stems
)
*(-( *merican (ron S -teel (nstitute
)
-*E -ociet" of *utomoile Engineers
)
*-TM *merican -ociet" for Testing
Materials
>eneral Designation
)
>eneral 7orm *(-(:
*(-( ????
Caron Content in
Kun!re!ths of a percent
-pecific allo" in the
group
*llo" groupU in!icates
ma8or allo"ing elements
*(-( 1020 *(-( E'E0
E+amples:
2'30
2330
E1E0
10G0
1. /o# Caron %less than 0.'1 caron&
) /o# strength, goo! formailit"
) (f #ear is a potential prolem, can e caruriOe!
%!iffusion har!ening&
) Most stampings ma!e from these steels
) *(-( 100F, 1010, 1013, 101F, 1020, 1022, 1023
2. Me! Caron %0.'1 to 0.G1&
) Ka$e mo!erate to high strength #ith fairl" goo! !uctilit"
) Can e use! in most machine elements
) *(-( 10'0, 10E0, 1030, 10G0N
'. Kigh Caron %0.G1 to 0.H31&
) Ka$e high strength, lo#er elongation
) Can e Puench har!ene!
) ;se! in applications #here surface su8ect to arasion
tools, 9ni$es, chisels, ag implements.
) *(-( 10F0, 10H3
Plain Carbon Steel
-teel Con!itions
)
-teel properties $ar" !epen!ing on the
manufacturing process
)
-teel is often rolle! or !ra#n through a !ie

Kot,rolle! rolle! at ele$ate! temperature

Col!,rolle! impro$e! strength S surface

finish

Col!,!ra#n highest strength #ith goo!

surface finish
Keat Treating
)
Process for mo!if"ing the properties of
steel " heating
)
Processes use! most for machine steels:

*nnealing

=ormaliOing

Through,har!ening %Puench S temper&

Case har!ening
All these curves are
steels.
What do they have in
common?
What is different?
<T A <oom Temperature
/C A /o#er Critical Temperature
;C A ;pper Critical Temperature
*nnealing
)
Full!nnealing: creates
uniform composition of the
material.

-oft, lo#,strength material

=o significant internal stress

-tress <elief *nnealing
)
Stress Relief !nnealing

Done after #el!ing,

machining or col! forming to
relie$e resi!ual stresses
minimiOing !istortions
<T A <oom Temperature
/C A /o#er Critical Temperature
;C A ;pper Critical Temperature
=ormaliOing
)
-imilar to annealing ut
at a higher temperature
%aout 1G00V7&
)
Kigher strength
)
Machinailit" an!
toughness are impro$e!
o$er as,rolle! state.
<T A <oom Temperature
/C A /o#er Critical Temperature
;C A ;pper Critical Temperature
*ustenite: * nonmagnetic soli! solution
of ferric cari!e or caron in iron, use! in
ma9ing corrosion,resistant steel
Through,har!ening
)
Keate! Puic9l" forming
austenite then Puic9l"
cooling in a Puenching
me!ium.
)
Martensite har! form of
steel is forme!
)
Wuenching me!iums:
#ater, rine an! special
mineral oils.
)
Wuenche! steel that isn5t
tempere! is rittle
<T A <oom Temperature
/C A /o#er Critical Temperature
;C A ;pper Critical Temperature
Tempering
)
<eheat steel to E00V7 1'00V7
imme!iatel" after Puenching an! allo#ing
it to cool slo#l".
)
*s tempering temperature increases,
ultimate an! "iel! strengths !ecrease an!
!uctilit" increases
)
Machine parts shoul! e tempere! at :00
V7 minimum after Puenching. Wuenching
lea$es the material rittle.
*(-(
10E0 WWT
Kigher Tempering
temps. !ecreases
strength ut
increases !uctilit"
WWT A #ater
Puenche! S
tempere!
7ig. *E,1, *ppen!i+ E, pg. *,F
Case Kar!ening
)
-urface of a part is har!ene! ut core
remains soft S !uctile thin9 mSm5s.
)
;suall" .010 to .0E0 thic9
)
Metho!s:

7lame har!ening an! in!uction har!ening

CaruriOing, nitri!ing, c"ani!ing, an! caro,

nitri!ing
-tainless -teel
)
Corrosion resistant steel 12 to 1F1
chromium content
)
T"pes

!ustenitic mo!erate strength, nonmagnetic,

tempering: 1IE har!, 1I2 har!, 'IE har! an! full
har!. %200 an! '00 series&

Ferritic magnetic, goo! for use at high

temps. Can5t e heat,treate!. %E00 series&

Martensitic magnetic, can e heat,treate!.

>oo! toughness an! stronger than 200 an!
'00 series. Wi!e range of uses: scissors,
pump arts, airplanes, marine har!#are,
me!ical ePuipment.
-tructural -teels
Kigh strength, lo# caron allo" steel
-tructural Plates an! 4ars
>ra" (ron
) 4rittle material, -
u
from 20 to G0 9si
) Compressi$e stress 3? -
u
)
E+cellent #ear resistance
)
Eas" to machine
)
>oo! $iration !ampening ailit"
)
Classes: 20, 23, '0, E0, 30, G0
Minimum -
u
Ductile (ron
)
Kigher strength than gra" iron
)
More !uctile
)
>ra!e !esignation:
Tensile
strength
in 9si
.iel! strength in 9si
1 elongation in
a 2L gage length
><*DE F0,33,0G
Malleale (ron
)
Keat treatale cast iron
)
Mo!erate to high strength
)
Kigh mo!ulus of elasticit"
)
>oo! machineailit"
)
>oo! #ear resistance
)
>ra!e !esignation:
><*DE E0010
.iel! strength 1 elongation
Po#!ere! Metals
)
Metal po#!ers are place! into a !ie an!
compacte! un!er high pressure.
)
-intering at high temperatures fuses the
po#!er into a uniform mass.
)
;suall" rittle not goo! for impact
)
-intere! earings porous an! can e
saturate! #ith luricant
)
/ight#eight material, goo! corrosion
resistance, relati$e ease of forming S
machining.
)
>oo! appearance.
)
>enerall" tempere!

0 A anneale!

K A strain,har!ene!

T A heat treate!
)
G0G1,TG
*luminum
-train,har!ening:
controlle! col! #or9ing of
the allo" increases
har!ness an! strength,
re!uces !uctilit".
Titanium
)
>oo! corrosion resistance
)
Kigh strength to #eight ratio
)
Mo!ulus of Elasticit" 1G + 10
G
psi
)
-pecific #eight A .1G0 XIin
'
)
-trength 23 to :3 9si
)
Kigh cost
)
Difficult to machine
Designation:
Ti,30*
.iel! strength e+pecte! in 9si
Plastics
)
Thermoplastic can e repeate!l" forme! " heating or
mol!ing properties not change!. C*= 4E <EC./CEDQ
="lon
*4-
Pol"caronate
*cr"lic
Commo!it" plastics: Pol"prop"lene %P&, Pol"eth"lene %PE&, Pol"$in"l Chlori!e %P@C&,
Pol"st"rene %P-&
)
Thermoset un!ergoes a chemical change !uring
forming. (t can5t e reshape!. C*= =0T 4E
<EC.C/EDQ
Phenolic
Pol"ester
Epo+"
Ceramics
)
7orme! " appl"ing high temperatures to
inorganic, nonmetallic, an! generall"
ine+pensi$e material, especiall" cla".
)
-trong, noncon!ucti$e an! #eather
resistant.
)
4rittle
Composites
)
T#o or more materials acting together to
pro$i!e material properties that can e
tailore! to specific con!itions.
)
0ften glass or caron fiers on!e!
together #ith a matri+ material epo+",
pol"ester, others.
Material -election
)
* goo! material is one that #or9s in the
gi$en application cheaply.
)
(f #t S siOe not important use cheap matl
)
-iOe no prolem, #t is use hollo# matl
)
Wt S siOe important use YYY material