Magnetic Recording

COEN 180
Magnetic Recording
Magnetic Recording Physics
Leaves patterns of
remanent
magnetization on a
track within the
surface of magnetic
media that sits on
top of a physical
substrate.
Track formed by head passing over it.
We say that the head flies over the
track, i.e. we assume the view point of
the head.
Three principal orientations of
magnetization with respect to a track:
Longitudinal, Perpendicular, Lateral.
Longitudinal recording:
Transducer is ring-shaped electromagnet with a
gap at the surface facing the media.
If head is fed with current, the fringing field from
the gap magnetizes the magnetic media.
Media moves at constant velocity under the head.
Temporal changes in the current leave spatial
variations in the remanent magnetization along
the length of the track.
Magnetic Write-
Head Schematics:
Functioning of Gap.
Remanent magnetization pattern:

Read head used to be the same as
write head.
Passing the gap head over the track
would let the magnetization pattern
cause an induced read current.
Writing and Reading with a Gap Head: From top to bottom: Write Current,
Magnetization Pattern, Read Current.
The read current is a (deformed) derivative of the write current. The
deformation results from the length of the gap.
The read current is a (deformed)
derivative of the write current.
The deformation results from the
length of the gap.
Perpendicular Recording
Uses a Probe Head.
Has the potential for better magnetization
retention.
MEMS
Probe Device:
Remanent Magnetization is
in the same direction as the
probe.
Hard drives currently use exclusively
longitudinal magnetization.
Switch to perpendicular is expected in
the near future.
Better retention Higher Areal Densities.
Lateral never used.

Magneto-Resistive Effect (MR)
GMR
Standard read head.

MR-Effect: Magnetic field (red) moves electron flow in the
sense current (yellow) up by an angle of . The magneto-
resistive material (blue) has different resistance based on
the angle .
MR head directly reads the magnetic
flux.
Gap head reads the changes in
magnetic flux.
MR head can adjust the sense current.
Better sensitivity.
Data Storage on Rigid Disks
Single platter or stack of platters
Thin magnetic coating
Rotate at high speeds.
Magnetic recording heads mounted on arms record
data on all surfaces.
Heads moved across the disk surface by a high speed
actuator.
Circular tracks.
Cylinder
Formed by the tracks on all surfaces by same actuator
position.
The tracks are broken up into sectors (or disk blocks).
The old format of 512B per block still remains in effect.
Hard drives rotate at constant angular
speed.
Constant linear velocity impractical.
Heads see more track in the outer layers.
Nr. of sectors per track varies.
Remains constant in a band.
Data density increases in a band as we move
to the inside.
The platter consists of a rigid aluminium
or glass platter, coated with various
coats.
Rigid platter
Magnetizable thin film that actually stores
the data.
Overcoat
Lubricant
Protects (somewhat) against head crashes
Use surrounding air pressure to maintain the
proper distance between head and the surface
The spacing controls the focus of the head; if the
head is further away from the surface, then it will
read from and write to a wider area.
To increase data densities, the head - surface spacing
has decreased dramatically.
The head can no longer be parked on the surface
during power down (when the rotation ceases, the
head will actually land).
Special landing area.
Surface is treated to allow air to get between the head
and the surface.
When head flies again, move over the data tracks.

Data Access:
Seek
Place head over right track.
Servo: Find the right track.
Used to be done with a special servo-surface on
one of the platters.
No servo data is embedded in the sector gaps.
Rotational Delay
On average half the time of a disk revolution.
AKA latency.
Transfer Time

Performance Parameters:
Capacity / Data Density
Disks with smaller form factors have become
popular in niche applications.
Trend towards smaller disk, that can rotate faster.
Data density is a two-dimensional value:
tpi: Tracks per inch: How far do tracks have to be
separated.
bpi: bits per inch: How many sectors on a single
track.

Operations on adjacent
tracks can interfere
with each other:
Track misregistration.
During read
Too much noise.
During write
Data written can be
unreadable.
Data on next track can
become unreadable.

Data Density:
Limited by the ability to distinguish distinct
magnetization patterns.
Pulse superimposition theory:
Flux from nearby magnetization patterns
influences reads.
Read current picked up by a
magnetic gap head.
Red line: Read current in absence of the
other change.
Green line: Resulting read current.
Top: No interference.
Middle: Peak shifts to the outside.
Bottom: Peak shift much more
pronounced.
Seek time:
Determined by the speed of the actuator.
Determined by the capacity of the servo
mechanism.
If the actuator moves very fast, then there is more
of a settling time.
Latency:
Solely determined by rotational speed.
Rotational speed limited by the aerodynamics
of the platter.
Larger platters cannot be rotated as fast as
smaller ones.
Access Time:
Random Access
Seek
Latency
Transfer
Stream (block after block)
Only first seek, only first latency.
Zero Latency Disk
Starts reading whenever data needed appears under the
head.
Others wait for the first block of the stream.
Occasional track to neighboring track seeks.

Errors
Disks are not intended for error-free
operations.
Soft error
Error cannot be repeated.
Hard error
Cannot do the operation.
Interference
Cross-talk between different channels or
through feedthrough.
Track Misregistration.
Imperfect Overwrites / Incomplete Erasures.
Side fringing
when the head picks up flux changes from an
adjacent track.
Bit loss due to Intersymbol Interference.
Noise
Media noise
Defects or random media properties
Spot on the surface does not retain magnetization because of a
manufacturing problem or because of a previous head crash.
A modern disk drive has spare sectors on each track and complete
spare tracks to substitute for sectors that have these defects.
Even without an outright defect, the magnetic properties of the
medium vary.
Electronic Noise
caused by random fluctuations typically in the first stage
amplifier in the reproducing circuit.
Head Noise:
The magnetic flux in both write and read heads is subject to
thermally induced fluctuations in time.

Error rate is controlled through the use
of Error Control Codes.
In addition, each sector has a checksum
to prevent false data from being read.
Reliability
Device failure
SMART (UCSD MRC) can predict 50% failures
based on higher rate of soft errors.
Block failure: bit rot
Data corruption: bit rot that is undetected.
Power Use
Major problems for laptops.
Major problems for very large disk-based
storage centers.
Various proposals of spinning up / down
strategies:
MAID: Massive Arrays of Idle Disks.
System Interface:
SCSI vs. IDE.
Magnetic Codes
Magnetic codes bind the bit stream to
magnetization patterns.
Direction of write current determines
the direction of magnetization
Easiest: NRZ code
No Return to Zero Code.
Needs clocking.

Magnetic Codes
NRZ Code: Vertical lines are clock ticks.
They define a window.
Write current in one direction is a zero, in other is a
one bit.
We detect magnetization changes (Peak detection).
We miss one, we reverse the rest of the string.

Magnetic Codes
NRZI
No Return on Zero Inverted
Switch magnetization pattern = 1
No switch during window = 0.
Has difficulties of counting with long
strings of zeroes.
Magnetic Codes
NRZ (top) and NRZI (below)
Magnetic Codes
Phase encoding:
Transition up for a one in window
Transition down for a zero in window
Two or more zeroes / ones in a row:
Additional transition in the middle.
Self-clocking
Magnetic Codes
Top to bottom:
PE
FM
MFM
Magnetic Code
Self-clocking:
Transitions are never spaced out.
Easy to synchronize clock to transitions.
Magnetic Codes
Problem with PM:
Up to twice as many flux changes than
transitions.
Limits bit density because flux changes too
close together leads to noisy signal.
Magnetic Codes
FM
Frequency Modulation
Transition in the middle of the cell defines
a one bit
Absence means a zero bit.
Magnetic Codes
Top to bottom:
PE
FM
MFM
Magnetic Codes
FM still has potentially up to twice as
many flux changes than bits.
Self clocking.
Magnetic Codes
MFM
Delay Modulation / Miller Code
Transition in the middle of the cell for a one.
No transition in the middle of the cell for a zero
bit.
Additional transition on the window boundary
between two zeroes.
Number of flux changes equals the number of bits.

Magnetic Codes
Top to bottom:
PE
FM
MFM
Magnetic Codes
Generate MFM by a state
diagram.
Data bits determine transition.
Bits in state our output when
state is reached.
First bit for the clock window.
Second bit for the transition /
lack of transition within the
window.
Magnetic Codes
Top to bottom:
PE
FM
MFM
Magnetic Codes
Modulation Codes
Transform data bit string into a magnetic code.
Written on magnetic medium as an NRZI waveform.
3 Parameters:
d = minimum of zeroes between consecutive ones.
k = maximum of zeroes between consecutive ones.
Data density: ratio of x data bits over y magnetic code bits.
Important for capacity:
Large values of d are important for data density:
Flux transitions are spaced out.
Lower values of k indicate ease of synchronizing clocks.

Magnetic Codes
(2,7) code

Data Code Word
10 0100
11 1000
000 000100
010 100100
011 001000
0010 00100100
0011 00001000

Magnetic Codes
PRML channel
Uses maximum likelihood decoding (ML)
Partial response:
Readback pulses from adjacent transitions are allowed to
interfere with each other.
ML decoding unravels the results of interference.
Write Precompensation
Predistorting the write data before they are sent
to write driver
transitions are correctly placed when read.
Disk Defects
Channel impairments
Intersymbol interference
Off-track interference
Amplifier noise
Disk defects
Random noise associated with the random
nature of the disk surface without defects.
Media defect.
Error Correcting Code
Disks use error detection and error
correction
Reed Solomon code example:
38 bytes added to 512 data field
Probability of uncorrectable error moves from
10
-7
per bit to 8.8*10
-16
.
Hard Drive Reliability
Measured in Mean Time Between
Failure
Typically quoted at > 10
6
hours
Gives the probability of failure during the
economic lifespan of disk, not expected
life span.
Note: Data is expected to survive centuries
Disk Infant Mortality
Disk drives fail at significantly higher rates during the first
year.
Typical failure rate curve:
IDEMA proposal:
Split MTBF rates in four different rates
0 months - 3 months
4 months 6 months
7 months 12 months
13 months - EODL

Disk Infant Mortality becomes
noticeable for management when
setting up redundancy strategies for
very large arrays of drives.
Either:
Increase redundancy of data stored
partially on young drives.
Use additional burn-in times
Stated Service Life
Expected service time of drive, usually rather
short. (~ 3 years)
Design life
Time span that a disk drive should be functioning
reliably.
Because of technical obsolescence (performance,
capacity) < 7 years.
Warranty Length
Reliability Factors
Start / Stop Rates
Spinning down disk creates reliability problems.
Counter measures:
Special Landing zones (Desktop)
Ramping (Laptop)
Power On / Off cycles
Air pressure
Air cushion is needed to place head at correct
distance

Reliability Factors
Temperature (Cooling)
Vibrations
Relevant if disks are put together in a rack.

Bad Batch Problem
Anecdotes of bad batches
Tend to show up in the first year
But not fast enough to be caught by
quality.
Usually dealt with silently through the
warranty process
Hard Failure Modes
Mechanical Failures
stuck bearings, actuator problems,
Head and Head Assembly Failures
head crash, bad wiring,
Media Failures
Logic Board / Firmware Failures
Shock Resistance

Quantum Corporation,
http://www.storagereview.com/guide2000/ref/hdd/perf/qual/features.html
SMART
(Self-Monitoring Analysis and Reporting
Technology )
Many hard errors are predictable
30% current implementations
40% - 60% with advanced decision making
Get smartctl for linux at smartmontools.sourceforge.net
SMART
SMART spec (SFF-8035i) 1996
Lists of 30 attributes
read error rates
seek error rates
Attribute exceeding a threshold:
Disk is expected to die within 24 hours
Disk is beyond design / usage lifetime
ATA-4
Internal attribute table is dropped
Disk return OK or Not-OK
ATA-5
Adds ATA error logs and commands to run self-tests

Magnetic Recording

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COEN 180

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