7.

Channel Models
Signal Losses due to three Effects:
1. Large Scale
Fading: due to
distance
2. Medium Scale
Fading: due to
shadowing and
obstacles
3. Small Scale
Fading: due to
multipath
Wireless Channel
Several Effects:
Path Loss due to dissipation of energy: it depends on distance only
Shadowing due to obstacles such as buildings, trees, walls. Is caused by
absorption, reflection, scattering
Self-Interference due to Multipath.
transm
rec
P
P
10
log 10
distance log
10
Frequencies of Interest: in the UHF (.3GHz 3GHz) and SHF (3GHz 30 GHz)
bands;
Path Loss due to Free Space Propagation:
Transmit
antenna
Receive
antenna
2
4
rec transm
P P
d

t
| |
=
|
\ .
wavelength
c
F
=
d
Path Loss in dB:
10 10 10
10log 20log ( ( )) 20log ( ( )) 32.45
transm
rec
P
L F MHz d km
P
| |
= = + +
|
\ .
1.1. Large Scale Fading: Free Space
For isotropic antennas:
2. Medium Scale Fading: Losses due to Buildings, Trees,
Hills, Walls
{ } _ + =
p p
L E L
The Power Loss in dB is random:
approximately gaussian with
dB 12 6 ~ o
expected value
random, zero mean
0
0
10
log 10 } { L
d
d
L E
p
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
Path loss
exponent
Reference distance
indoor 1-10m
outdoor 10-100m
Free space loss at reference
distance
dB
Average Loss
10 0
log ( / ) d d
{ }
0 p
E L L
10
1
10
0
10
2
10

20dB
10
Values for Exponent :
Free Space 2
Urban 2.7-3.5
Indoors (LOS) 1.6-1.8
Indoors(NLOS) 4-6

Okumura: urban macrocells 1-100km, frequencies 0.15-1.5GHz,
BS antenna 30-100m high;
Hata: similar to Okumura, but simplified
COST 231: Hata model extended by European study to 2GHz
Empirical Models for Propagation Losses to Environment
3. Small Scale Fading due to Multipath.
a. Spreading in Time: different paths have different lengths;
time
Transmit
Receive
0
( ) ( ) x t t t o =
0
t
0
( ) ( ) ...
k k
y t h t t o t = + +
1
t
2
t
3
t
0
t
2
1
3
8
100 10
sec
3 10 c
t = = =

Example for 100m path difference we have a time delay

Typical values channel time spread:
channel
0
( ) ( ) x t t t o =
1
t
2
t
MAX
t
0
t
0
t
1
Indoor 10 50 sec
Suburbs 2 10 2 sec
Urban 1 3 sec
Hilly 3-10 sec
n

b. Spreading in Frequency: motion causes frequency shift (Doppler)

time
time
Transmit
Receive
Frequency (Hz)
Doppler Shift
v
c
f
2
( )
c
j F t
T
x t X e
t
=
( ) 2
( )
c
j F F t
R
y t Y e
t +A
=
for each path
c
F F + A
time
Transmit Receive
v
Put everything together
time
) (t x ) (t y
Re{.}
t F j
C
e
t 2 t F j
C
e
t 2
) (t h
) (t w
) (t g
T
LPF
) (t g
R
LPF
( ) x t
( ) y t
2 ( )( )
( ) ( ) Re ( )
c
j F t F
y t x t e a t
t t
t
+ A

=
`
)

Each path has shift in time

shift in frequency
attenuation
(this causes small scale time variations)
paths
channel
2.1 Statistical Models of Fading Channels
Several Reflectors:
Transmit
v
( ) x t
t
( ) y t
t
1
t
2
t
t
For each path with NO Line Of Sight (NOLOS):
2 ( )( )
( ) Re ( )
c k
j F t
k
k
k
F
y t a e x t
c t t
c t
+ A

| |
=
`
|
\ .
)

v
( ) y t
t
average time delay
each time delay

each doppler shift
k
t c +
D
F F A ~
cos( ) v u
t
t
) 2 ( )( 2 2
( ) Re ( )
c k c
F F j F j F t j t
k
k k
y t e e x t e a
t c t t t
c t
+ + A A

| |
=
`
|
\ .
)

( ) 2 ( )
2
( ) ( )
c k
j F F
j F t
k
k
r t a e e x t
t t c
t
t
+A +
A
| |
=
|
\ .

Assume: bandwidth of signal <<

( ) ( )
k
x t x t c ~
leading to this:
Some mathematical manipulation


k
c / 1
{ }
2
( ) Re ( )
c
j F t
y t r t e
t
=
( ) ( ) ( ) r t c t x t t =
with
( ) 2 ( )
2
( )
c k
j F F
j F t
k
k
c t a e e
t t c
t
+A +
A
=
random, time varying
Statistical Model for the time varying coefficients
( )
2 ( )
2
1
( )
c k
M
j F F
j F t
k
k
c t a e e
t c t
t
+A +
A
=
=

random
By the CLT is gaussian, zero mean, with:
( ) c t
{ }
*
0
( ) ( ) (2 )
D
E c t c t t PJ F t t +A = A
D C
v v
F F
c
= =
with the Doppler frequency shift.
Each coefficient is complex, gaussian, WSS with autocorrelation
{ }
*
0
( ) ( ) (2 )
D
E c t c t t PJ F t t + A = A
( ) c t
and PSD
{ }
2
0
2 1
if | |
( ) (2 ) 1 ( / )
0 otherwise
D
D
D D
F F
F
S F FT J F t F F
t
t

<

= A =

with maximum Doppler frequency.

D
F
( ) S F
D
F
F
This is called J akes
spectrum.
Bottom Line. This:
time
v
time
) (t x ) (t y
1
t
1
( ) c t
t
( ) c t
N
t
( )
N
c t
( ) y t

) (t x
can be modeled as:
delays
1
t
t
N
t
time
time
time
For each path
( ) ( ) c t P c t =
unit power
time varying (from autocorrelation)
time invariant
from power distribution
Parameters for a Multipath Channel (No Line of Sight):
Time delays:
| |
L
t t t
2 1
sec
Power Attenuations:
| |
L
P P P
2 1
dB
Doppler Shift:
D
F Hz

) ( ) ( ) ( t t x t c t y
( ) ( ) c t P c t =
) (t c WSS with Jakes PSD
Summary of Channel Model:
Non Line of Sight (NOLOS) and Line of Sight (LOS) Fading Channels
1. Rayleigh (No Line of Sight).
Specified by:
Time delays

Power distribution
] ,..., , [
2 1 N
T t t t =
] ,..., , [
2 1 N
P P P P =
Maximum Doppler
D
F
0 )} ( { = t c E

2. Ricean (Line of Sight)
0 )} ( { = t c E

Same as Rayleigh, plus Ricean Factor
Power through LOS

Power through NOLOS
Total LOS
P
K
K
P
+
=
1
Total NOLOS
P
K
P
+
=
1
1
K
Simulink Example
-K-
Transmi tter
Gai n
B-FFT
Spectrum
Scope
Rectangul ar
QAM
Rectangul ar QAM
Modul ator
Baseband
-K-
Recei ver
Gai n
Rayl ei gh
Fadi ng
Mul ti path Rayl ei gh
Fadi ng Channel
-K-
Channel
Attenuati on
Bernoul l i
Bi nary
Bernoul l i Bi nary
Generator
Rayleigh Fading Channel
Parameters
M-QAM Modulation
Bit Rate
Set Numerical Values:
modulation
power
channel
C D
F
c
v
F = Recall the Doppler Frequency:
carrier freq.
sec / 10 3
8
m
velocity
Easy to show that:
( ) ( ) ( )
GHz
C h km Hz D
F v F
/
~
Channel Parameterization
1. Time Spread and Frequency Coherence Bandwidth
2. Flat Fading vs Frequency Selective Fading
3. Doppler Frequency Spread and Time Coherence
4. Slow Fading vs Fast Fading
1. Time Spread and Frequency Coherence Bandwidth
Try a number of experiments transmitting a narrow pulse at different random
times
) ( ) (
i
t t p t x =
) (t p
We obtain a number of received pulses
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
i i i i
y t c t p t t c t p t t t t t = +

1
t t
1
t
2
t t
i
t t
1
t
2
t t
0
0
N
t t
1
t
2
t t
0

) (
1 1
t +
i
t c
2 2
( )
i
c t t +
( )
i
c t t +

transmitted



Take the average received power at time
i
t t t =
t 1
t
2
t t
0
1
P
2
P P

{ }
2
| ) ( | t c E P

=
MEAN
t
RMS
t
0
10
20
Received Power
time
More realistically:
This defines the Coherence Bandwidth.
Take a complex exponential signal with frequency . The response of
the channel is:

A
=

) ( 2
) ( ) (
t t t
MEAN
t F j
e t c t y
If
) (t x
F
1 | | << A
RMS
F t
2 ( )
( ) ( )
MEAN
j F t
y t c t e
t t
| |
=
|
\ .

then
i.e. the attenuation is not frequency dependent
Define the Frequency Coherence Bandwidth as
1
5
c
RMS
B
t
=

1
5
c
RMS
B
t
=

frequency
Coherence Bandwidth
Channel Flat up to the
Coherence Bandwidth
This means that the frequency response of the channel is flat within
the coherence bandwidth:
Frequency Coherence
Signal Bandwidth
<
>
Frequency Selective
Fading
Flat Fading
Just attenuation, no distortion
Distortion!!!
Example: Flat Fading
Channel : Delays T=[0 10e-6 15e-6] sec
Power P=[0, -3, -8] dB
Symbol Rate Fs=10kHz
Doppler Fd=0.1Hz
Modulation QPSK
Spectrum: fairly uniform
Very low Inter Symbol
Interference (ISI)
Example: Frequency Selective Fading
Channel : Delays T=[0 10e-6 15e-6] sec
Power P=[0, -3, -8] dB
Symbol Rate Fs=1MHz
Doppler Fd=0.1Hz
Modulation QPSK
Spectrum with deep
variations
Very high ISI
3. Doppler Frequency Spread and Time Coherence
Back to the experiment of sending pulses. Take autocorrelations:
{ } ) ( ) ( ) (
*
t t c t c E t R A + = A

Where:
1
t t
1
t
2
t t
i
t t
1
t
2
t t
0
0
N
t t
1
t
2
t t
0

) (
1 1
t +
i
t c
2 2
( )
i
c t t +
( )
i
c t t +

1
( ) R t A
2
( ) R t A
( ) R t A
transmitted
Take the FT of each one:
( ) S F
D
F
F
This shows how the multipath characteristics change with time.
It defines the Time Coherence:
) (t c

9
16
C
D
T
F t
~
Within the Time Coherence the channel can be considered Time Invariant.
Summary of Time/Frequency spread of the channel
Time Spread
Frequency Spread
) , ( F t S
F
t
RMS
t
D
F
Frequency
Coherence
1
5
c
RMS
B
t
=

Time
Coherence
9
16
C
D
T
F t
~
mean
t
Stanford University Interim (SUI) Channel Models
Extension of Work done at AT&T Wireless and Erceg etal.
Three terrain types:
Category A: Hilly/Moderate to Heavy Tree density;
Category B: Hilly/ Light Tree density or Flat/Moderate to Heavy Tree density
Category C: Flat/Light Tree density
Six different Scenarios (SUI-1 SUI-6).
Found in
IEEE 802.16.3c-01/29r4, Channel Models for Wireless Applications,
http://wirelessman.org/tg3/contrib/802163c-01_29r4.pdf
V. Erceg etal, An Empirical Based Path Loss Model for Wireless
Channels in Suburban Environments, IEEE Selected Areas in
Communications, Vol 17, no 7, July 1999