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\
|
=
c c
o
,
2
exp
RT
Q
C
1 2
2 1
2
1
ln
T T
T T
R Q
|
.
|
\
|
=
o
o
2-2
10
Equation 2.1 can also be written as:
where AH is an activation energy (calorie per mole). It is related
to the activation energy of Eq. 2.1 by Q = m AH, where m is the
strain rate sensitivity.
Z is the Zener-Hollomon parameter or temperature-modified
strain rate.
( )
c
c o
|
.
|
\
|
A = =
-
) exp( RT H f Z f 2-3
( )
RT
H
Z
A
=
-
exp c
2-4
11
The above equation can be written in a different form for hot-
working conditions:
where A, o, and n are experimentally determined constants
At low stresses (oo < 1.0), Eq. 2.5 reduces to:
The power law equation (Eq. 2.6) can be used to describe
creep, and superplasticity to some extent.
|
.
|
\
|
=
-
RT
Q
A
n
exp ) (sinh
'
oo c
2-5
|
.
|
\
|
=
-
RT
Q
A
n
exp
'
1
o c
2-6
12
At high stresses (oo > 1.2), Eq. 2.5 reduces to:
The constants o and n can be determined from tests at high
and low stresses.
|
.
|
\
|
=
-
RT
Q
n A exp ) ' exp(
2
oo c
2-7
13
Strain Rate Effects
Lowest range of strain rates Creep and Stress Relaxation
Intermediate range 10
-4
< c < 10
-2
Hot working/Tensile test
Highest range
shock wave or explosive test
Stress-strain curves can be sensitive to strain rate
flow stress increases with strain rate
work hardening rate may also increase with strain rate
-
c
14
Two parameters used to describe the above effects are:
- Strain rate sensitivity (m), and this is given as:
and
where
T
m
, ln
ln
c c
o
-
c
c
=
(2.8)
T
w
s
, ln
ln
c c
-
c
c
=
T
d
d
w
, c
c
o
=
(2.9)
15
Equations 2.8 and 2.9 can be expressed as
It is possible to determine m from tensile tests by changing the
strain rate suddenly and by measuring the instantaneous
change in stress. This technique is illustrated in Fig. 2.5.
(2.10)
m
K
-
= c o
s
K
d
d -
= c
c
o
'
(2.11)
16
Figure 2-5. Strain-rate changes during tensile test. Four strain
rates are shown: 10
-1
, 10
-2
, 10
-3
, and 10
-4
s
-1
.
17
Applying Equation 2.10 and 2.11 to two strain rates and
eliminating K, we have:
One can easily obtain m from the strain rate changes in Figure 2-5
The parameter m is important in accessing the superplasticity of
materials
(2.12)
( )
|
.
|
\
|
=
- -
1 2
1 2
/ ln
/ ln
c c
o o
m
18
Constitutive Equations
Describe the relations between stress and strain in terms of the
variables of strain rate and temperature
Early concept: f(o,c,c,T) = 0
Analogous to equilibrium in thermodynamics system which
states that:
f(P, V, T) = 0
There are several forms of constitutive relations, including the
simple power law relation (Hollomon equation) and its
variants.
19
o = f(Z) = f(ce
AH/RT
)
c
where Z is called the Zener-Hollomon parameter, AH is an
activation energy (calorie per mole), of which Q = m AH
c = A(sinhoo)
n`
e
-Q/RT
where A, o, and n` are experimentally determined constants
Other Examples of Constitutive Relations
(2.3)
(2.5)
20
At low stresses (oo < 1.0) :
where A, o, and n` are experimentally determined constants.
At high stresses (oo > 1.2), and the equation reduces to:
The constants o and n` are related by | = on`
Constitutive Relations (cont)
(2.6)
(2.7)
RT Q
e A
/
2
) exp(
-
= |o c
RT Q n
e A
/ '
1
-
= o c
21
Figure 2-6. Stress-strain curves for AISI 1040 steel subjected to
different heat treatments; curves obtained from tensile test.