WIRELESS LOCAL LOOP

AN OVERVIEW

Mian Ahmed Yaser

DE (Computer & Data Services)
 Definition
• WLL is a system that connects the
subscribers to the PSTN using radio
system as a substitute for the copper for
all or part of the connection between
subscriber and switch.
 Wireless local loop
• Replaces:
– Traditional twisted pair
• Also called:
– Fixed wireless access
 WLL alternatives
• Narrowband
– Replaces existing telephony services
• Broadband
– Provides high speed two way voice and data
 WHY WLL?
• Congested urban areas
• Far flung rural areas
• Fast installation
• Less maintenance
• Easy operation
• Less establishment problems
 Role of WLL
• WLL services one or two cells
• A cell has a base station antenna installed on
the top of a tall building or a tower
• Customers’ antennas are installed atop their
houses or separate poles such that there is an
unobstructed line of sight with the base station
• Base station is linked to the switching center
wirelessly or wired
• An ISP is linked to the switch using a high speed
link
 Advantages of WLL
1. Cost of installation and maintenance of WLL is lower
than cable network
2. Installation time is less in case of WLL
3. Selective installation: Installation for those who require
connection at a certain time
4. Quality of wireless technologies have improved to
nearly equal the contemporary wired options which do
face problems like longer distances in xDSL and lack of
infrastructure, so WLL offers tough competition
5. Cellular systems are too expensive with lesser signal
quality than fixed broadband wireless which uses
directional antennas
 System Elements
.
LE WLT NIU

CATU CTRU STRU ITS

OMC
System Boundary

WLT: Wireless Line Transceiver NIU: Network Interface Unit

CATU: Central Access and Transcoding Unit STRU: Subscriber TRansceiver Unit
CTRU: Central TRansceiver Unit ITS: Intelligent Telephone Socket

OMC: Operations & Maintenance Centre

 System elements
• Wireless
. Line Transceiver (WLT)
Air Interface
• Provides the interface to the
local exchange (E1 links)
non-concentrating
WLT OMC
• Provides connection to
subscribers over air interface E1 Links
(Trunks)
• Provides connection to OA&M
facilities Local
Exchange
 Wireless line transceiver
• .
The WLT comprises Local Exchange
two sub-elements
Up to 16 E1 Links
• Central Access and
Transcoding Unit (CATU) CATU
– Interface to the local exchange
• Central TRansceiver Unit Copper, fibre or
(CTRU) microwave E1 link
– Access to the Air Interface concentrating
CTRU
Network Interface Unit (NIU)
• .
• Provides the Subscriber
interface to the telephone NIU
network over the Air Air Interface
Interface
• Provides the interface to
subscriber terminal WLT
equipment (telephones, E1 Links

faxes, modems, etc.) Local

Exchange
 .
The NIU comprises
of two sub-elements
• Subscriber TRansceiver Unit
– Interfaces to the WLT via the Air Interface.

STRU

– Intelligent Telephone Socket

–Subscriber equipment interface

ITS
 System elements
• .
Operations and Maintenance Centre (OMC)

• Provides all the management

functions necessary to maintain
the system
 OMC
• The OMC LAN connects to
AirLoop® via the CATU
CTRU
• The OMC provides OA&M
functionality for up to 250
WLTs

CATU
Up to 16 E1 Links

Local Exchange
 System interfaces

LE A CATU B CTRU C STRU

F G D
ITS
OMC
LMT E
 System Deployment
OMC

4x2Mbps
E1
PSTN NIU
STRU

Exchange ITS
CTRU Fixed
Access
System

4x2Mbps E1

CATU
 System Features
• Wired-Equivalent Service
• High Data Rate, 144kbps for ISDN , and 512
kbps and above for packet data
• High-End Calling Services
• Clear Connections, ensured by CDMA
• Signal Security
• Modular and easy to expand
• Easy to use Graphical User Interface (GUI) for
the Operation and Maintenance Center
 System Services
• Analogue Services • Digital Services
– POTS – EURO ISDN
– Voice band data up to – Circuit Mode
28.8 Kbps – CLIP
– Emergency calls – CLIR
– Supplementary services
supported by hook-flash
and DTMF
 ‘A Interface’
and
Central Access &
Transcoding Unit
LE A CATU B CTRU C STRU

F G D
ITS
OMC
LMT E
 Local Exchange

Standard Switch Interconnection

Providing:
Up to 16 E1 links to each
CATU
Transparency for all services
offered by the Local Exchange
All switching is carried out at
Local Exchange

LE WLT NIU

CATU CTRU STRU ITS

OMC
 The ‘A’ Interface
• Connects the CATU to the Local Exchange
• Supports CAS, V5.1, V5.2r1 & Q931 Protocols
• Subscriber concentration possible using V5.2
• Subscriber capacity varies depending on which protocol is used
• V5.2r1 or V5.1* is Lucent proprietary

LE WLT NIU

CATU CTRU STRU ITS

OMC
 CATU
19” or ETSI Rack
Accepts - 48V DC
Indoor Environment:
-25°C to +55C °
Safety & EMC to
European standards

LE WLT NIU

CATU CTRU STRU ITS

OMC
 CATU - Interfaces
• A The Central Access & Transcoding Unit Provides

A B
LE CATU CTRU

The Local Exchange The CTRU Interface

Interface
Router
WAN/LAN

Router
F The OMC Interface

OMC
 CATU - Hardware
LE WLT NIU
CATU CTRU STRU ITS

OMC 4

The rack houses the following:-

3
• Up to 4 VME Card Shelves (VCS)
2
• Power and Alarm Distribution Shelf
1
• Auxiliary Shelf
 • SIC
• PSU
• CPC
• HDU

• ARCC
• LIC - 1 to 5
• ETEC - 1 to 8
• CAS (optional)
Power Supply Unit

1/2
Control Processor Card

3
4-6
Unit
CATU Shelf Comprises:-

Disk
Hard

Line Interface Card

Fan 1 Module
LE

Line Interface Card

7 8
ETEC
ETEC
OMC
CATU

ETEC
ETEC
WLT

Cable Duct

ETEC
CTRU

ETEC
ETEC
Channel Associated Signaling Card
Line Interface Card
STRU

Line Interface Card

Fan 2 Module
NIU

Line Interface Card

ITS

Alarm & Radio Control Card

CATU - Circuit Pack Layout

Signalling Interface Card

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
 CATU - Card Architecture
Central Alarm and
Hard Disk
Processing Radio Control
F Unit External
F Card
Interface Card Alarms
Interface
(WAN/LAN)
(WAN/LAN)

Control Bus

Enhanced
Channel
Line Transcoding Signalling Line
and Associated
A Interface Interface Interface B
Encryption Signalling
Card Card Card Interface
Interface Card Card
(E1 Link)
(E1 Links)

Traffic and Timing Bus

 Summary
LE WLT NIU

CATU CTRU STRU ITS

OMC

• Provides Interface to Local Exchange (A)

• Supports CAS, V5.1, V5.2r1 & Q931 Protocols
• Supports up to 16 x E1 Links
• Provides an Interface to the CTRU (B)
• Provides an Interface to the OMC (F)
• B Interface and Central
TRansceiver Unit
 System Interfaces

LE A CATU B CTRU C STRU

F G D
ITS
OMC
LMT E
 B Interface
• Proprietary Interface
• 1 x E1 Link
• 128 x 16 kbps channels
• 13 channels reserved for system use
• 115 channels available to support subscriber traffic

LE WLT NIU

CATU CTRU STRU ITS

OMC
 B Interface - E1 Structure
16kb = 1 Time Slot Channel 128 TSCs / E1

64Kb = 1 Timeslot 32 Timeslots / E1

13 TSCs Reserved for System Use

115 TSCs Available for User Traffic
 System Capacity
• Single Transceiver
•
•
• Traffic/Subscriber 0.2E 0.1E 0.1E
• Blocking/GoS 0.1% 1.0% 2.0%
• Coding Bandwidth Circuits Subs Subs Subs
• LD-CELP 16kbps 115 443 982* 1025*
• ADPCM 32kbps 57 191 442 468
• A-Law 64kbps 28 76 186 201
• ISDN (B+D) 80kbps 23 58 145 158
• ISDN (2B+D) 144kbps 12 21 59 66

• Systems supporting more than 480 subs/ transceiver need V5.2 or

V5.1*
 CTRU - Features
Central TRansceiver Unit LE WLT NIU

Outdoor Environment: CATU CTRU STRU ITS

-45° to +55°C
OMC

19” or ETSI rack,

req’s 90V-264V AC @
50/60Hz

Safety & EMC

to European Standards

Floor, wall, or pole mounted

 CTRU - Function
The CTRU provides the following functionality:-
• Terminates the B interface from the CATU
• Provides the Air Interface
• “Base Station”
• Demodulation of all reverse link bearers
• Allows use of the Local Maintenance Terminal
LE WLT NIU

CATU CTRU STRU ITS

OMC
CTRU - Hardware
LE WLT NIU
CATU CTRU STRU ITS

OMC

CTRU Outdoor cabinet

comprises:-
• VME Shelf

• CTRU Radio
• Optional E1 radio

• Power & Alarm

distribution shelf
 • LIC
• CPC
• SMC

• CMC

• ARCC
CTRU Shelf comprises:-

• DMC (up to 8)
• PSU ( 90-264vAC)

Power Supply Unit

1-4
Control Processor Card

5
Blank VME Faceplate
LE

Blank VME Faceplate

6/7
Fan 1 Module

Demodulator Card
Demodulator Card
OMC
CATU

Demodulator Card
Demodulator Card
WLT

Sampling & Measurement Card

CTRU

Cable Duct

Common Modulator Card

Demodulator Card
Demodulator Card
Demodulator Card
STRU

Demodulator Card
NIU

Blank VME Faceplate

Fan 2 Module
ITS

Blank VME Faceplate

Line Interface Card
CTRU - Circuit Pack Layout

Alarm & Radio Control Card

8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
CTRU - Card Architecture
Local Central
Maintenance G
Processing
Terminal Card External
Alarm

Control Bus

Line Common Sampling & Alarm &

Demodulator
Interface Modulator Measurement Radio Control
B Card
Card Card Card Card

Traffic and Timing Bus

Radio Module

C
 Summary
• Proprietary B Interface (1 x E1 )
• 128 x 16 kbps time-slot channels
• CTRU = Outdoor cabinet
• Supports - Air, B and G interfaces
• Provides demodulation for all reverse link
bearers
• Allows use of the Local Maintenance Terminal
 AirLoop→ System

The Air Interface

The C Interface
 Air
Air Interface
Interface Objectives
Objectives

Describe:

 An introduction to CDMA
 The function of the Air Interface
 The Air Interface protocol
 AirLoop : System Interfaces
®

LE A CATU B CTRU C STRU

F G D
ITS
OMC
LMT E
 Multiple Access Techniques
LE WLT NIU
CATU CTRU STRU ITS

OMC

e
od
Time

Time

Time

C
Frequency Frequency Frequency

FDMA TDMA CDMA

Broadcast Latest cellular (IS-95)
Early cellular (TACS) Digital cellular (GSM) AirLoop®
 Why CDMA ?
• Flexible
– ability to support multiple basic rate users: (16, 32, 64Kbps)

• High performance
– Inherent resistance to narrow-band interference & fading

• High Security
– Spreading PN code, with Random Assignment
– Proprietary Interface

• Low Frequency Re-use

– N=2
• Range/Capacity Tradeoff
– Larger Cells In Low Capacity Areas
 The Air Interface
• Wideband CDMA
– 4096 kchips, 5MHz bandwidth
– Inherent resistance to narrowband fading & RF interference
– Power control in simple 2dB steps
– Error correction using advanced algorithm

• 2 Frequency Bands 1.9 GHz - 3.4 GHz

• Physical
– Base station: 90° sectors
– Subscribers: narrow beam antenna

• Designed after UK propagation trial

– Urban, sub-urban & rural environments
CDMA Technology - Transmit
Digital Signal (Bits) Multiplier
Source and
RF
Channel X
Modulator
Coding Frequency
Spectrum

f
Code Bits (Chips) “Spread” Frequency f
Code Spectrum
Generator

• Information signal is multiplied by a unique, high rate

digital code which spreads its bandwidth before
transmission. Code bits are called “Chips”.

• At the base station, many signals can be combined in

one radio transmitter, since all users have same
frequency channel.
CDMA Technology - Receive
Digital Signal (Bits)
Correlator
Channel
RF
X and
Demodulator
De-Spread Source
“Spread” Frequency f Signal Decoding
Spectrum
f
Code Bits (Chips)
Code
Generator

• At the receiver, the spread signal is correlated again by a synchronised

replica of the same code, and is “de-spread” and recovered
• Even if multiple users share the channel, the signal can be recovered
since the other codes are different:
Recovered Signal
Other
Users
G { G = processing gain
= number of chips per information bit
f
 DS-CDMA (Spread Spectrum)
• Direct Sequence Code Division Multiple Access
Transmitter

16kbps data
multiplied by
1 of 128 wideband spreading codes
gives
low power, wide band RF signal

multiply the received signal with

the same, synchronised, spreading
Receiver

code
16kbps data
and
spreads other signals & interference
 CDMA
LE WLT NIU
CATU CTRU STRU ITS

OMC

• AirLoop DS-CDMA uses:

– Rademacher-Walsch code to differentiate
between the 128 bearers
– Pseudo-noise (PN) to differentiate between
WLTs
 CDMA LE WLT NIU
CATU CTRU STRU ITS

OMC

128 x 16kbps channels (bearers)

• 115 available for user traffic
aggregated to give required subscriber capacity
hard channel limit ensures low Bit Error Rates (BERs)
• centrally configured

115 circuits 982 lines POTS LD-CELP @ 16kbps

57 circuits 442 lines POTS ADPCM @ 32kbps
28 circuits 186 lines POTS PCM @ 64kbps
23 circuits 145 ports ISDN B+D @ 80kbps

(1% blocking, 0.1Erlang/ line)

CDMA: AirLoop® and IS-95
AirLoop IS-95

Fixed Access target services Mobile

No mobility Yes
5MHz RF bandwidth 1.25MHz
115 x 16kbps traffic channels soft limit
10-6 BER 10-3
16-144kbps data bandwidth 8-13kbps
 RF Frequency
• 2 RF Frequencies in Development
Band
• 5 MHz Forward & Reverse inks
• ETSI TM4 Wireless Access Bandplan
Frequency Transmit Duplex Receive RF Channels
3.4 GHz 34525-34975 100 35525-35975 10

Reverse Link Guard Band Forward Link

50MHz

3.400GHz 3.450GHz 3.500GHz 3.550GHz

• Other Frequencies
Frequency Transmit Duplex Receive RF Channels
1.9 GHz 18525-19075 80 19325-19875 12
 Frequency Re-Use
• Base assumption: f2
f1
2 x 5MHz up link f1
2 x 5MHz down link
4 x 90° sectors
1 WLT/ sector
f2
•Additional spectrum
lower cell count
within area coverage constraints
higher final capacity/ cell
lower initial cost
simplifies backhaul
1 WLT/ sector/ frequency
 Bit Error Rate Effects
Range and Capacity versus BER

9
8.5
8
1 E-3 BER
7.5
1 E-4 BER
7
Range

6.5
6 1 E-5 BER
5.5
5 1 E-6 BER
4.5
4
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Number of Bearers
 Cell Patterns
• Square or Hexagonal Grid
• 4 x 90º
• 1 WLT/sector
• 4 WLTS/cell
– or n x 4 depending on
frequency allocations
•Cell radius
rural 5.2 km
suburban 3.4 km
urban 2.1 km
Based on: 95% coverage, 10-6 BER, L-o-S not mandatory,
‘typical’ environment.

Full RF planning should ALWAYS be used to define actual coverage

in required areas.
 Summary

• DS-CDMA
• Proprietary Interface
• Rademacher-Walsch codes
• Pseudo Noise codes
• Available in 2 frequency bands
 AirLoop System
→

The
Subscriber Interface
The
Network Interface Unit
 NIU Objectives

Describe:-
 The function of the ‘D’ and ‘E’ Interface

 The function of the Subscriber Transceiver Unit

 The function of the Intelligent Telephone Socket

 AirLoop : System Interfaces
®

LE A CATU B CTRU C STRU

F G D
ITS
OMC
LMT E
 NIU
LE WLT NIU
CATU CTRU STRU ITS

The Network Interface Unit OMC

consists of 2 Sub-assemblies

The Subscriber TRansceiver Unit (STRU)

and
The Intelligent Telephone Socket (ITS)
 STRU - Features
LE WLT NIU
CATU CTRU STRU ITS

OMC

Subscriber TRansceiver Unit

– Outdoor Unit (environment: -45 to +55C)
– Wall, or pole mounted
Houses:
– Integrated flatplate antenna
– Modem
– Transceiver
– Interface to the ITS - ‘D’ Interface
 STRU - Function

• The function of the

STRU
– is to receive and transmit
signals at the
subscriber’s premises
LE WLT NIU
CATU CTRU STRU ITS

OMC
STRU - Modes of Operation

The STRU has 2 modes of operation;

Idle Mode
&
Call Mode
LE WLT NIU

CATU CTRU STRU ITS

OMC
 STRU - Modes of Operation
LE WLT NIU

CATU CTRU STRU ITS

• Idle Mode OMC

– the STRU enters idle mode when no calls are

being handled. Whilst in this state, the STRU
constantly monitors channels to determine if
action is required

• Call Mode
– the STRU will enter call mode when
calls are being processed
 ITS Features
LE WLT NIU
CATU CTRU STRU ITS

Intelligent Telephone Socket:

OMC

– Requires 90-264V @ 50/60Hz

– Offers battery backup
2hrs Standby/1hr Talk Time (optional unit
provides 8hrs standby)
– Provides STRU with 54Vdc
– Has smartcard facility
– Can be Wall or Table Mounted
– Offers LED Control/Status Indication
 ITS - Function
LE WLT NIU
CATU CTRU STRU ITS

• The function of the ITS OMC

– is to provide the
subscriber with either
analogue or ISDN
access to the local
exchange via the STRU,
Air Interface and the
WLT
ITS - Status Indications

The ITS has 3 Status LED’s ;

ITS - Modes of Operation

The ITS has 3 modes of operation;

Installation Mode

Minimum Configuration Mode

Fully Operational Mode

LE WLT NIU
CATU CTRU STRU ITS

OMC
 ITS - Modes of Operation
LE WLT NIU
CATU CTRU STRU ITS

OMC

• Installation Mode
– is entered when the ITS is
powered up during
installation. After successful
installation the ITS goes into
fully operational mode
 ITS - Modes of Operation
LE WLT NIU
CATU CTRU STRU ITS

OMC

• Minimum
Configuration Mode
– is entered if during installation
an error is detected or if a
major alarm is reported
during normal operation.
During this mode no call processing takes
place.
 ITS - Modes of Operation
LE WLT NIU
CATU CTRU STRU ITS

OMC

• Fully Operational Mode

– in this mode the ITS is fully
functional, performing
maintenance tasks and call
processing
 Other Features
LE WLT NIU

The ITS Also Provides; CATU CTRU STRU ITS

OMC

– 2 x POTS Subscriber Lines (RJ11)

– 1 x ISDN BRA Interface (RJ45)
– 8 POTS Subscriber Lines (R3)
– Group 3 Fax Capability
– 28.8Kbps Modem Capability
 Security
LE WLT NIU
CATU CTRU STRU ITS

• Subscriber authentication OMC

– Cell & WLT sector

– Range (± 40m)
– NIU i/d

• Air interface traffic protection

– CDMA inherently difficult to intercept
 Smartcard
LE WLT NIU
CATU CTRU STRU ITS

OMC

Engineers Smartcard
• Contains the following information
– NIU i/d - assigned to the smartcard
– PN Code Index
– Frequency Band Channel
 NIU Summary
STRU ITS
• Integrated flatplate • ‘E’ Interface - 2 x POTS or
antenna 1 x ISDN BRA
• Modem • LED Control/Status Indication
• Transceiver • Modem and Fax Capability
• ‘D’ Interface • Smartcard Facility
to the ITS
• Battery Back-Up
• Wall or Pole Mounted
 AirLoop® System

Operations and Maintenance

Centre
&
Local Maintenance Terminal
 OMC and LMT Objectives

 Identify the Main OMC Applications

 Describe the functions achieved by the
software applications on the OMC
 Describe the function of the LMT
 AirLoop : System Interfaces
®

LE A CATU B CTRU C STRU

F G D
ITS
OMC
LMT
E
 AirLoop System
→

The Operations, Administration and

Maintenance of the AirLoop System is
performed primarily at the

Operations and Maintenance Centre

using the ‘F’ Interface
 OMC
There are 2 Main Applications at the OMC

Service Provisioning

Network Management
&
Alarm Monitoring
 OMC

LE WLT NIU
CATU CTRU STRU ITS

OMC

The Operations & Maintenance Centre provides:-

– Configuration of Equipment and Software

– Subscriber Service Provisioning
– Alarm Monitoring
– Security Management
– Performance Monitoring
 OMC Software Platform

• UNIX (HP-UX)
• HP - Common Desktop Environment
• ObjectStore
• OpenView (SNMP)
• Network Node Managers
• MIB (Managed Information Base)
 OMC
LE WLT NIU

• Service Provisioning CATU CTRU STRU ITS

Allows the user to:- OMC

– Create, Modify or Delete a service group

– Create, Modify or Delete subscribers
– Create, View or Delete E1 links on ‘B’ Interface

• Network Management and Alarm Monitoring

enables the user to:

– Develop and maintain the AirLoop System

Access Network using a Graphical User Interface
OMC Network Architecture
The server can either be a workstation or
a full size business server.

The OMC server holds the database

used by the applications software, and
supports multiple users using X-
Terminals.

The user interfaces connect via a

hub to the Main OMC Server, the
number of which depends on the
Network Operator’s requirements of
the AirLoop System.
 Network Size
• Depends on the customer’s requirements and the size
of the AirLoop System Network to be managed

The Network is
scaleable
• The OMC can provide OA&M facilities for up to
250 WLT’s, each supporting up to 480 subscribers
 Local Maintenance Terminal
• Portable PC that connects
directly into the CTRU
via an RS232 interface.
7 LE WLT NIU
CATU CTRU STRU ITS

‘G’
LMT

Interface • Provides on-site

diagnostics and
maintenance functions
for the CTRU
 LMT
• The LMT software is held within the CTRU
• Activity on the RS232 port activates a local
maintenance process
• The LMT provides 2 levels of Functionality
• Password Protection allowing:-
– View only
– View and Configure

LE WLT NIU
CATU CTRU STRU ITS

LMT
 LMT
The Top Level Menu provides
options to:-
7

– Configure Equipment
– Data Menu
– Display Alarms
– CTRU Board Config
– Commit Changes
– Connect to CATU
LE WLT NIU
CATU CTRU STRU ITS – Enable ‘Pilot only’
LMT
 Summary
• OMC:-
– Service Provisioning
– Network Management & Alarm Monitoring
– Performance Monitoring

• LMT:-
– On-site diagnostics and maintenance
functions for the CTRU
 Frequency bands
• 15 frequency bands allocated by FCC
• 2 GHz-40 GHz i.e. higher than cellular
systems
i.e. millimeter wave frequencies
Freq (GHz) Usage
2.15-2.162 Licensed MDS and MMDS, two bands 6MHz each
2.4-2.483 Unlicensed ISM
2.596-2.644 Licensed MMDS, eight bands of 6MHz each
2.65-2.656 Licensed MMDS
2.662-2.668 Licensed MMDS
2.674-2.68 Licensed MMDS
5.725-5.875 Unlicensed ISM-UNII
24-24.25 Unlicensed ISM
24.25-25.25 Licensed
27.5-28.35 Licensed LMDS (Block A)
29.1-29.25 Licensed LMDS (Block A)
31-31.075 Licensed LMDS (Block B)
31.075-31.225 Licensed LMDS (Block A)
31.225-31.3 Licensed LMDS (Block B)
38.6-40.0 Licensed
 Propagation considerations
• Millimeter wave range used is defined as frequencies above
10 GHz up to 300 GHz
• Because:
– Availability of wide unused frequency bands above 25 GHz
– Wide channel bandwidths available for high data rates at higher
frequencies
– Small size transceivers with adaptive antennas can be used
 Disadvantages of millimeter range
• Free space loss increases with the square
of frequency
• Attenuation due to rainfall and
atmospheric absorption is significant after
10 GHz
• Multi-path losses are high because:
 Because:
• Reflection occurs when an EM signal encounters a
surface larger relative to the wavelength of the
signal
• Scattering occurs if the size of obstacle is of the
order of the wavelength of the signal
• Diffraction occurs if wave front encounters the edge
of the obstacle that is large compared to wavelength
 Fresnel zone
• Space around the direct path between
transmitter and receiver that should be
clear of obstacles

• Basis:
– Any small element of space in the path of EM
wave may be considered as the source of a
secondary wavelet. Radiated field is build up
by superposition of these wavelets
 Fresnel zone (contd.)
• Objects lying within a series of concentric
circles around the direct line of sight
between two transceivers have
constructive or destructive effects on
communication
• Objects falling in the first circle have the
most negative effect
 Fresnel zone (contd.)

R= λSD
√ S+D

S=Distance from transmitter

D=Distance from receiver
λ=Wavelength of signal
S,R and D are in same units
 or

Rm =17.3 Skm Dkm

√ fGHz (Skm +Dkm )

S and D are distances in Km,

R is in meters
f is in Giga Hertz
Attenuation due to Fresnel zone is
negligible if :

• Obstruction does not lie within 0.6

times the radius of first Fresnel
zone
ATMOSPHERIC ABSORPTION
• Molecular absorption significant above 10 GHz
• Peak of water vapor absorption at 22 GHz
• Oxygen absorption peak is at 60 GHz
• So, favorable window is in between 28-42 GHz
with attenuation of the order of 0.13dB/km
• Another favorable window is between 75 GHz-
95 GHz with attenuation of the order of
0.4dB/km
 Effect of rain
• Rain severely degrades the performance of
communication links
• It out-weighs all other factors
• Depends upon drop shape, size, rain rate and
frequency
A=aRb
R= rate of rain
A=attenuation measured in dB/km
a & b depend upon distribution of drop sizes and frequency
 Temperature dependency of air
absorption at 28 GHz
Relative humidity

0% 50% 100%
00 0.02 0.05 0.08
100 0.02 0.08 0.14
Temp (0C)
200 0.02 0.12 0.25
300 0.02 0.2 0.44
400 0.01 0.33 0.79
Values of a and b for horizontal and
vertically polarized EM waves
Freq(GHz) ah av bh bv
1 .0000387 .0000352 0.912 0.880
2 0.000154 .000138 0.963 0.923
6 0.00175 0.00155 1.308 1.265
10 0.0101 0.00887 1.276 1.264
20 0.0751 0.0691 1.099 1.065
30 0.187 0.167 1.021 1.000
40 0.350 0.310 0.939 0.929
50 0.536 0.479 0.873 0.868
 Effect of vegitation
• Trees can cause multipath fading due to
diffraction and scattering
• Attenuation of:
– Regularly planted orchards is 12-20dB
– Deciduous trees up to 40dBs
– Conifer trees 1 to 3dBs
• If foliage lies within 60% of first fresnel zone
 Presence of trees does not
preclude communication,
• So methods like forward error correction
should be employed
 WLL SYSTEM TECHNOLOGIES
1. ANALOG CELLULAR
2. DIGITAL CELLULAR
3. PERSONAL COMMUNCATIONS
SERVICES / NETWORK (PCS/PCN)
4. DIGITAL CORDLESS SYSTEMS
5. PROPRIETARY IMPLEMENTATIONS
 1. Analog Cellular

• Three of its system types operating in the world, AMPS and NAMPS with 69% of
subscribers, while TACS has 23% and NMT has only 8%.
• These systems use conventional FM on either 25 or 30 kHz channels in 800 or
900MHz mobile bands. Most recently AMPS operate in 1800-2000MHz band.
• Best suited to serve low or medium density markets, with long range up to 70km, with
fixed units having high gain antennas.
• Narrow band analog transmission results in low speed.
• Since the access method is FDMA, the subscriber unit cannot support more than one
line per radio tranceiver.

• Relatively low capacity in terms of number of channels.

 2. Digital Cellular
• Major worldwide digital cellular standards include GSM, D-AMPS (American) & GSM/DCS
(European), TDMA and CDMA.
• It is forecasted that approximately one-third of the installed WLL will use digital cellular

technology in the year 2000.

• Digital cellular can support higher capacity and better functionality than analog cellular and
wireline networks.
• Digital cellular systems are encrypted and provide high speech security with no impact on quality.
• Both DAMPS and GSM use TDMA and support multiple lines from a single subscriber unit.
• Some of these systems has general confusion over industry standards.
• GSM currently dominates mobile cellular industry, but there has been little activity in using GSM
as a WLL platform.
 TDMA and Point to Multipoint Systems

• These System are relatively well suited for rural use, because they provides
service coverage over a wide area.
• TDMA standards are IS-54 and IS-136, triples the capacity of cellular
frequencies, by dividing a 30 kHz cellular channel into 3 timeslots.
• Proven and reliable technology.

• Designed to support subscribers in sparsely populated rural areas.

• A typical base station has 30 or 60 traffic channels and could support 256 to
1800 residential subscribers respectively.
• Relatively long range (over 70km) but requires a line-of-sight path between
RBS and all subscriber units.
 CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)

• CDMA is a "spread spectrum" technology, it spreads the information contained in a

particular signal over a much greater bandwidth than the original signal.
• A CDMA call starts with a standard rate of 9.6kb/s. This is then spread to a
transmitted rate of about 1.23 Mb/s.
• It offers 3-6 times more capacity than the other digital standards and 10-15 times
greater than analog cellular.
• Improved spectral efficiency in a multi-cell environment - mainly due to interferer
diversity.
• Flexible cell sizes and service provisions - for a given data rate, range is increased as
traffic density is reduced.
• Speech delay can be minimized - fast power control tracks and minimize fading.
• Multi-path fading is reduced due to inherent frequency diversity, which is common in
mountainous terrain and dense urban areas.
• CDMA-WLL based on new US cdma-One (IS-95) standard is presently used.
 3. Personal Communications Services/
Network (PCS/PCN)
• PCS starts to operate in the 1800 MHz frequency band. PCS/PCN incorporates
elements of digital cellular and cordless standards as well as newly developed RF
protocols.
• Its purpose is to offer low-mobility wireless service using low-power antennas.
• The main weakness of PCS/PCN is that it is not yet commercially available.
• The candidate standards are CDMA, TDMA, GSM, personal access communication
systems (PACS), Personal handyphone system (PHS), and digital cordless telephone
United States (DCT-U).
• PHS technology and terminal equipment reduces the WLL system cost as it uses
32kb/s ADPCM voice coding system.
• PHS-WLL system is superior in terms of speech quality and economy for urban and

suburban applications. It also offers extensibility to mobile service in the future.

 4. Digital Cordless Systems
• CT2 (Cordless telephone 2nd generation) and DECT (Digital Enhanced / European
cordless telephone systems are its types.
• CT2 provides the user with a single 32kb/s duplex channel, but it has not been
universally adopted.
DECT
• DECT is a picocellular wireless system for very dense subscriber environments
where demand per km is high and cell coverage area is not a critical requirement.
• DECT supports ISDN services and also comprehensive security provisions including
authentication and encryption.
• The DECT radio interface is based on TDMA technology. It operates over 10 radio

carriers in the 1880 to 1900 MHz band.

• It uses dynamic channel selection, an automated frequency-planning mechanism,
which provides least interference from neighboring cells.
 DECT
• System has frequency reuse limitations, so the maximum number of voice channels
available for a single cell site in a multi-cell environment is 60.
• DECT system transmits at low power using low antenna heights.
• DECT does not appear to be ideally suited for long range rural or low-density
applications.
• Its normal range is 3-5 Km with a capacity up to 100,000 subscribers per km2.
• As compared to cellular technology, DECT is capable of carrying higher levels of
traffic and data.
• The micro-cell architecture of DECT allows it to be deployed in smaller increments
that more closely match the subscriber demand, with reduced initial capital
requirements.
 5. Proprietary Implementations

• These systems are considered proprietary because they are not available
on public wireless networks and are typically customized for a specific
application.

• They generally do not provide mobility, and are most effective in terms of

time and cost.

• Proprietary systems like broadband CDMA and fixed radio access are
designed from vendors like Interdigital, Ionica and NORTEL. Equipment
providers include corporate giants such as Motorola, Ericsson, Lucent,
Siemens, NEC, Qualcomm and Hughes Network Systems as well as many
other smaller companies
Scope of WLL System application in
terms of the Subscriber density
WLL Technologies by Market Segment

Developed Emerging

Urban/Suburban Digital Cellular DECT

DECT PHS
PHS Digital Cellular
Proprietary Proprietary

Rural Digital Cellular Digital Cellular

Proprietary Analog Cellular
Proprietary
 OFDM
• Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing
• Also called Multi carrier modulation
• Sending some of the bits on each channel
• All sub channels are dedicated to a single
data source
 Suppose we have:
• Data stream operating at R bps
• Available bandwidth is N∆f centered at f0
• Entire bandwidth used to send data stream for which
each bit duration is 1/R
• Alternatively split the data stream to N sub-streams
using serial to parallel converter
• Each sub-stream has a data rate of R/N bps
transmitted on a separate carrier
• Spacing between individual sub-carriers is ∆f
• Now the bit duration is N/R
 Advantages of OFDM:
• Frequency selective fading only affects a few
channels and not the whole signal so it can be easily
handled by forward error correction techniques
• OFDM can handle Inter-symbol interference in
multipath environment
– ISI is more effective at higher bit rates as the distance
between the bits is smaller
– OFDM reduces the data rate by a factor of N thus symbol
period increases by the factor N so effect of ISI is reduced
– So equalizers do not remain essential
 Modulation scheme for OFDM

• QPSK
– There are two bits representing one symbol
 MMDS
• Multichannel multipoint Distribution service
• Occupies 6 MHz made up of 512 individual carriers
with carrier saparation of 12 kHz
• Data transmitted in bursts
• Cyclic prefix attached to each burst to reduce
transients from previous bursts caused by multipath
 MMDS (contd.)
• 64 symbols constitute cyclic prefix
• Followed by 512 QPSK symbols per burst
• So on each sub-channel, QPSK symbols are
separated by a prefix of duration 64/512 symbol
times
• By the time prefix is over, the resulting waveform
is independent of the previous burst
• So ISI is nil
 MMDS contd.
• Frequency range 2.15 GHz to 2.68 GHz
– 2.15-2.162 and 2.4-2.4835 GHz bands called
Multipoint distribution service for 6MHz TV
broadcast.
– In 1996 FCC increased the allocation up to
2.68 GHz for MMDS
– MMDS is used to provide TV service where
broadcast TV or cable can not reach in rural
areas
– So, MMDS is also called wireless cable
 MMDS contd.
• Range: 50km
• MMDS also used for two-way broad band
data services and Internet access
 Disadvantages of MMDS
• Lesser bandwidth than LMDS
• Data rates:
– 27 Mbps for up-stream per channel
– 300kbps to 3 Mbps individual subscriber rates

Used by residential or small business

customers
 Advantages of MMDS over LMDS
• Larger wavelengths i.e.10cm or more, so
travel farther, so larger cells
• Less expensive equipment than LMDS
• Signals more susceptible to rain
absorption
• Signals do not get easily blocked by
objects
 LMDS
• Local Multipoint Distribution service
• TV and two way broadband
communication
• Millimeter frequencies
• At 30 GHz in USA and 40 GHz in Europe
 Advantages of LMDS
• High data rates i.e. in Mbps
• Capability of video, telephony and data
• Lower cost than cable alternatives
 Disadvantage

• SHORT RANGE
 Antenna coverage
• 600 to 900 coverage sector so 4 to 6 antennas
required for full coverage
• Typical radius of 2 to 4 km
• Per customer data rates:
– 1 Mbps upstream
– 36 Mbps down stream
• Buildings, trees and foliage affect the communication
too much so overlapping cells or the use of repeaters
and reflectors is required
FIXED WIRELESS BROADBAND
ACCESS
• STANDARD

– IEEE 802.16

• Working group developed in 1999

 CHARTER OF IEEE 802.16
• Use of microwave or millimeter wave radio for
wireless links
• Use of licensed spectrum
• Standards of metropolitan scale
• Provide public network service to fee paying
customers
• Point to multipoint architecture for roof top or
tower mounted antennas
• Efficient transport of heterogeneous traffic with
QoS
• Broad band capability i.e. >2 Mbps
 IEEE 802.16 working groups
• IEEE 802.16.1:
• Air Interface for 10 to 66 GHz
• IEEE 802.16.2:
• Co-existance of Broadband wireless access
systems
• IEEE 802.16.3:
• Air Interface for licensed frequencies 2 GHz to 11
GHz