Chapter 28 Atomic Physics

The Hydrogen Atom

The Bohr Model
Electron Waves in the Atom
Wave Function, y

The value of
2
for a particular object at a certain place
and time is proportional to the probability of finding the
object at that place at that time.

The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

Momentum and position DxDp h/4p
Energy and time DEDt h/4p

Spectrum of White Light
Emission Spectrum of Hydrogen
Emission Spectrum of Helium
Emission Spectrum of Lithium
Emission Spectrum of Mercury
Absorption Spectrum of Hydrogen
Line Spectrum
Rutherford Model Predicts:
(1)A continuous range of frequencies of light emitted
(2)Unstable atoms
These are inconsistent with experimental observations
Why ?
Niels Henrik David Bohr
1885-1962
Quantized orbits
Each orbit has a different energy
Excited Electron
Photon emitted: hf=E
u
-E
l
1/l=R(1/2
2
-1/n
2
), n=3,4, for Balmer series
where Rydberg constant R=1.097x10
7
m
-1

Spectrum of White Light
Emission Spectrum of Hydrogen
Emission Spectrum of Helium
Emission Spectrum of Lithium
Emission Spectrum of Mercury
Absorption Spectrum of Hydrogen
Line Spectrum: hf=E
u
-E
l
Equations Associated with The Bohr Model
Electrons angular momentum
L=Iw=mvr
n
=nh/2p, n=1,2,3
n is called quantum number of the orbit

Radius of a circular orbit
r
n
=n
2
h
2
/4p
2
mkZe
2
=(n
2
/Z)r
1

where r
1
=h
2
/4p
2
mke
2
=5.29x10
-11
m (n=1)
r
1
is called Bohr radius, the smallest orbit in H

Total energy for an electron in the nth orbit:
E
n
=(-2p
2
Z
2
e
4
mk
2
/h
2
)(1/n
2
)=(Z
2
/n
2
)E
1

where E
1
=-2p
2
Z
2
e
4
mk
2
/h
2
=-13.6 eV (n=1)
E
1
is called Ground State of the hydrogen

Both orbits and energies depend on n, the quantum number

To break a hydrogen atom apart requires 13.6 eV
+ 13.6 eV =
Hydrogen
atom
+
Proton
electron
r=0.053 nm
v=2.2x10
6
m/s
Electron orbit
e
p
Question: In the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom,
the electron revolves around the nucleus in
order to
(a) emit spectral lines
(b) produce X rays
(c) form energy levels that depend on its speed
(d) keep from falling into the nucleus

Answer: d
Question: A hydrogen atom is in its ground state
when its orbital electron
(a) is within the nucleus
(b) has escaped from the atom
(c) is in its lowest energy level
(d) is stationary
Answer: c
Which one of the following statements is the assumption
that Niels Bohr made about the angular momentum of
the electron in the hydrogen atom?
(a) The angular momentum of the electron is zero.
(b) The angular momentum can assume only certain
discrete values.
(c) Angular momentum is not quantized.
(d) The angular momentum can assume any value
greater than zero because its proportional to
the radius of the orbit.
(e) The angular momentum is independent of the mass
of the electron.
X
Example: Find the orbital radius and energy
of an electron in a hydrogen atom
characterized by principal quantum
number n=2.
Solution: For n=2,
r
2
=r
1
n
2
=0.0529nm(2)
2
=0.212 nm
and
E
2
=E
1
/n
2
=-13.6/2
2
eV=-3.40 eV



1.The kinetic energy of the ground state electron in
hydrogen is +13.6 eV. What is its potential energy?
(a) 13.6 eV
(b) 27.2 eV
(c) zero eV
(d) +27.2 eV
(e) +56.2 eV

2. An electron is in the ground state of a hydrogen atom. A
photon is absorbed by the atom and the electron is excited
to the n = 2 state. What is the energy in eV of the photon?
(a) 13.6 eV
(b) 3.40 eV
(c) 0.54 eV
(d) 10.2 eV
(e) 1.51 eV
X
X
Line and Absorption Spectra
hf=E
u
- E
l
hc/l=E
u
- E
l
1/l=(1/hc)E
u
- E
l

1/l=(2p
2
Z
2
e
4
mk
2
/ch
3
)(1/n
l
2
-1/n
u
2
)

Each atom in the periodic table has a unique set of
spectral lines. Which one of the following
statements is the best explanation for this
observation?
(a) Each atom has a dense central nucleus.
(b) The electrons in atoms orbit the nucleus.
(c) Each atom has a unique set of energy levels.
(d) The electrons in atoms are in constant motion.
(e) Each atom is composed of positive and negative
charges.
X
Complete the following statement: An individual copper
atom emits electromagnetic radiation
with wavelengths that are
(a) evenly spaced across the spectrum.
(b) unique to that particular copper atom.
(c) the same as other elements in the same column of the
periodic table.
(d) unique to all copper atoms.
(e) the same as those of all elements.
X
Orbits and energies are quantized!
Why?

Wave-Particle Duality

l = h/p= h/mv


The quantized orbits and energy states in
the Bohr model are due to the wave nature
of the electron, and the electron wave
functions can only occur in the form of
standing waves.

Implication: The wave-particle duality is at
the root of atomic structure
Condition for orbit
An electron can circle an atomic nucleus
only if its orbit is a whole number of
electron wavelengths in circumference

Condition for orbit stability
nl=2pr
n
, n=1,2,3
Unless a whole number of wavelengths fits into the wire loop,
destructive interference causes the vibrations to die out rapidly
n=4
de Broglie wavelength is l=h/mv and the speed of the electron in a
hydrogen is
v=2.2x10
6
m/s
so l=h/mv
=6.63x10
-34
Js/(9.1x10
-31
kg)(2.2x10
6
m/s)
=3.3x10
-10
m

2pr
1
=2px5.29x10
-11
m=3.3x10
-10
m

The orbit of the electron in a hydrogen atom corresponds to
one complete electron wave joined on itself!

Question: With increasing quantum number, the
energy difference between adjacent energy
levels
(a) decreases
(b) remains the same
(c) increases
(d) sometimes decreases and sometimes
increases
Answer: a
Question: An atom emits a photon when one of its
electrons
(a) collides with another of its electrons
(b) is removed from the atom
(c) undergoes a transition to a quantum state of
lower energy
(d) undergoes a transition to a quantum state of
higher energy

Answer: c
Question: The bright-line spectrum produced by
the excited atoms of an element contains
wavelength that
(a) are the same for all elements
(b) are characteristic of the particular element
(c) are evenly distributed throughout the entire
visible spectrum
(d) are different from the wavelength in its dark-
line spectrum

Answer: b
Question: According to the Bohr model, an
electron can revolve around the nucleus of a
hydrogen indefinitely if its orbit is
(a) a perfect circle
(b) sufficient far from the nucleus to avoid capture
(c) less than one de Broglie wavelength in
circumference
(d) exactly one de Broglie wavelength in
circumference
Answer: d
Question: How can the spectrum of hydrogen
contains so many lines when hydrogen contains
only one electron?
Answer: The electron in the hydrogen atom can
be in any of a nearly infinite number of quantized
energy levels. A spectral line is emitted when the
electron makes a transition from one discrete
energy level to another discrete energy of lower
energy. A collection of many hydrogen atoms
with electrons in different energy levels will give
a large number of spectral lines.
Example: An electron collides with a hydrogen
atom initially in its ground state and excites it to
a state of n=3, How much energy was
transferred to the hydrogen atom in this inelastic
(KE not conserved) collision?
Solution: DE=E
1
(1/n
2
f
-1/n
2
i
)
Here n
i
=1, n
f
=3 and E
1
=13.6 eV
DE=E
1
(1/n
2
f
-1/n
2
i
)=E
1
(1/3
2
-1/1
2
)=-13.6(-8/9)eV
=12.1 eV

The presence of definite energy levels in an atom is true
for all atoms. Quantization is characteristic of many
quantities in nature

Bohrs theory worked well for hydrogen and for one-
electron ions. But it did not prove as successful for
multielectrons.

It is quantum mechanics that finally solved the problems


Early Quantum Theory
Quantum energy: E=hf

Photoelectric effect: hf=KE
max
+W
o

De Broglie wavelength: l=h/mv

Bohr theory: L=mvr=nh/2p
E
n
=E
1
/n
2
where E
1
=-13.6 eV

Wave-particle duality
Limitations of the Bohr Theory
Unable to predict the line spectra for more
complex atoms
Unable to predict the brightness of
spectral lines of hydrogen
Unable to explain the fine structure
Unable to explain bonding of atoms in
molecules, solids and liquids
Unable to really resolve the wave-particle
duality


Quantum Mechanics
It solves all these problems and has
explained a wide range of physical
phenomena.
It works on all scales of size. Classical
physics is an approximation of quantum
physics
It uses an abstract mathematical
formulation dealing with probabilities
Bohr Model
Quantum mechanics
Definite circular orbits of electrons
No precise orbits of electrons, only the
probability of finding a given electron
at a given point
Upon which one of the following parameters does the energy of a photon
depend?
(a) mass (c) polarization (e) phase relationships
(b) amplitude (d) frequency
For which one of the following problems did Max Planck make
contributions that eventually led
to the development of the quantum hypothesis?
(a) photoelectric effect (d) the motion of the earth in the ether
(b) uncertainty principle (e) the invariance of the speed of light through
vacuum
(c) blackbody radiation curves
X
X
Wave Function, y

The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

Description of waves
Type of waves Variable physical quantity
Water waves Height of the water surface
Sound waves Pressure in the medium
Light waves Electric and magnetic fields
Matter waves Wave function,

, the amplitude of a matter wave, is a
function of time and position

Probability Density
2
The value of
2
for a particular object at a certain place
and time is proportional to the probability of finding the
object at that place at that time.

For example:

2
=1: the object is definitely there

2
=0: the object is definitely not there

2
=0.4: there is 40% chance of finding the object there
at that time.


2
starts from Schrodingers equation, a differential
equation that is central to quantum mechanics

Why
2
? Why not ?
Amplitude of every wave varies from A to
+A to A to +A and so on (A is the
maximum absolute value whatever the
wave variable is).
A negative probability is meaningless.

2
gives a positive quantity that can be
compared with experiments.


The key point to the wave function is that the position
of a particle is only expressed as a likelihood or probability
until a measurement is made.
The probability the electron will be found at the particular position
is determined by the wave function illustrated to the right of the aperture.
When the electron is detected at A, the wave function instantaneously
collapses so that it is zero at B.
The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
Example: Compare the de Broglie wavelength of 54-eV electrons with
that of a 1500-kg car whose speed is 30 m/s.

Solution:
For the 54-eV electron:
KE=(54eV)(1.6x10
-19
J/eV)=8.6x10
-18
J
KE=1/2 mv
2
, mv=(2mKE)
1/2
l=h/mv=h/(2mKE)
1/2
= 1.7x10
-10
m

The wavelength of the electron is comparable to atomic scales (e.g.,
Bohr radius=5.29x10
-11
m). The wave aspects of matter are very
significant.

For the car:
l=h/mv=6.63x10
-34
Js/(1.5x10
3
)(30m/s)= 1.5x10
-38
m

The wavelength is so small compared to the cars dimension that no
wave behavior is to be expected.

The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
In the microscopic world where the wave
aspects of matter are very significant,
these wave aspects set a fundamental
limit to the accuracy of measurements
of position and momentum regardless of
how good instruments used are.
The uncertainty principle is the physical
law which follows from the wave nature
of matter
p=h/l precise
x unknown
Dx better defined
(narrower wave packet)
Dp less defined
(greater spread of l)
Uncertainty principle DxDph/2p
1. If an object has a well-defined position at
a certain time, its momentum must have
a large uncertainty.
2. If an object has a well-defined
momentum at a certain time, its position
must have a large uncertainty.
Uncertainty Principle
Momentum and position DxDp h/2p
Energy and time DEDt h/2p
Question: The quantum theory of the atom
(a) is based on the Bohr theory
(b) is more comprehensive but less accurate
than Bohr theory
(c) cannot be reconciled with Newtons laws
of motion
(d) is not based on a mechanical model and
considers only observable quantities
Answer: d
Question: A large value of the probability
density
2
of an atomic electron at a
certain place and time signifies that the
electron
(a) is likely to be found there
(b) is certain to be found there
(c) has a great deal of energy there
(d) has a great deal of charge there
Answer: a
Question: A moving body is described by the
wave function at a certain time and
place. The value of
2
is proportional to
the bodys
a. electric field.
b. speed
c. energy
d. probability of being found


Answer: d
Question: The narrower the wave packet of
a particle is
a. the shorter its wavelength
b. the more precisely its position can be
established
c. the more precisely its momentum can be
established
d. the more precisely its energy can be
established
Answer: b
Question: Modern physical theories indicate
that
a. all particle exhibit wave behavior
b. only moving particles exhibit wave
behavior
c. only charged particles exhibit wave
behavior
d. only uncharged particles exhibit wave
behavior
Answer: b
Question:The description of a moving body
in terms of matter wave is legitimate
because
a. it is based on common sense
b. matter waves have been actually seen
c. the analogy with EM waves is plausible
d. theory and experiment agree
Answer: d
Question: The wave packet that
corresponds to a moving particle
a. has the same size as the particle
b. has the same speed as the particle
c. has the speed of light
d. consists of x-ray
Answer: b
Question: If Plancks constant were larger than it
is,
a. moving bodies would have shorter wavelength
b. moving bodies would have higher energies
c. moving bodies would have higher momenta
d. The uncertainty principle would be significant on
a larger scale of size

Answer: d
Wave Function, y

The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle