2 1 Learning

Learning Process
CS/CMPE 537 Neural Networks

CS/CMPE 537 - Neural Networks (Sp 2006-2007) - Asim Karim @ LUMS 2
Learning
Learning?
Learning is a process by which the free parameters of a
neural network are adapted through a continuing
process of stimulation by the environment in which the
network is embedded
The type of learning is determined by the manner in
which the parameter changes take place
Types of learning
Error-correction, memory-based, Hebbian, competitive,
Boltzmann
Supervised, reinforced, unsupervised
Learning Process
Adapting the synaptic weight
w
kj
(n + 1) = w
kj
(n) + w
kj
(n)
Learning Algorithms
Learning algorithm: a prescribed set of well-defined rules
for the solution of a learning problem
In the context of synaptic weight updating, the learning algorithm
prescribes rules for w
Learning rules
Error-correction
Memory based
Boltzmann
Hebbian
Competitive
Learning paradigms
Supervised
Reinforced
Self-organizing (unsupervised)

Error-Correction Learning (1)

e
k
(n) = d
k
(n) y
k
(n)

The goal of error-correction learning is to minimize a
cost function based on the error function
Least-mean-square error as cost function
J = E[0.5
k
e
k
2
(n)]
E = expectation operator
Minimizing J with respect to the network parameters is the
method of gradient descent
Error-Correction Learning (2)
How do we find the expectation of the process?
We avoid its computation, and use an instantaneous
value of the sum of squared errors as the error function
(as an approximation)
(n) = 0.5
k
e
k
2
(n)
Error correction learning rule (or delta rule)
w
kj
(n) = e
k
(n)x
j
(n)
= learning rate
A plot of error function and weights is called an error
surface. The minimization process tries to find the
minimum point on the surface through an iterative
procedure.
Memory-based Learning (1)
All (or most) of the past experiences are stored
explicitly in memory of correctly classified input-
output examples: {(x
i
, d
i
)}i = 1, N
Given a test vector x
test
, the algorithm retrieves the
classification of the x
i
closest to x
test
in the training
examples (and memory)
Ingredients
Definition of what is closest or local neighborhood
Learning rule applied to the training examples in the local
neigborhood
Memory-based Learning (2)
Nearest neighbor rule
K-nearest neighbor rule
Radial-basis function rule (network)
Hebbian Learning (1)
Hebb, a neuropsychologist, proposed a model of neural
activation in 1949. Its idealization is used as a learning
rule in neural network learning.
Hebbs postulate (1949)
If the axon of cell A is near enough to excite cell B and
repeatedly or perseistently takes part in firing it, some growth
process or metabolic change occurs in one or both cells such
that As efficiency as one of the cells firing B is increased.
Hebbian Learning (2)
Hebbian learning (model of Hebbian synapse)
1. If two neurons on either side of a synapse are activated
simultaneously, then the strength of that synapse is
selectively increased
2. If two neurons on either side of synapse are activated
asynchronously, then that synapse is selectively weakened
or eliminated
Properties of Hebbian synapse
Time-dependent mechanism
Local mechanism
Interactive mechanism
Correlational mechanism
Mathematical Models of Hebbian Learning (1)
General form of Hebbian rule
w
kj
(n) = F[y
k
(n), x
j
(n)]
F is a function of pre-synaptic and post-synaptic
activities.
A specific Hebbian rule (activity product rule)
w
kj
(n) = y
k
(n)x
j
(n)
= learning rate
Is there a problem with the above rule?
No bounds on increase (or decrease) of w
kj

Generalized activity product rule
w
kj
(n) = y
k
(n)x
j
(n) y
k
(n)w
kj
(n)
Or
w
kj
(n) = y
k
(n)[cx
k
(n) - w
kj
(n)]
where c = / and = positive constant

Activity covariance rule
w
kj
(n) = cov[y
k
(n), x
j
(n)]
= E[(y
k
(n) y)(x
j
(n) x)]
where = proportionality constant and x and y are
respective means
After simplification
w
kj
(n) = {E[y
k
(n)x
j
(n)] xy}

Competitive Learning (1)
The output neurons of a neural network (or a group of
output neurons) compete among themselves for being
the one to be active (fired)
At any given time, only one neuron in the group is active
This behavior naturally leads to identifying features in input
data (feature detection)
Neurobiological basis
Competitive behavior was observed and studied in the 1970s
Early self-organizing and topographic map neural
networks were also proposed in the 1970s (e.g.
cognitron by Fukushima)
Elements of competitive learning
A set of neurons
A limit on the strength of each neuron
A mechanism that permits the neurons to compete for the
right to respond to a given input, such that only one neuron is
active at a time

Standard competitive learning rule
w
ji
= (x
i
w
ji
) if neuron j wins the competition
0 otherwise
Each neuron is allotted a fixed amount of synaptic
weight which is distributed among its input nodes

i
w
ji
= 1 for all j

Boltzmann Learning
Stochastic learning algorithm based on information-
theoretic and thermodynamic principles
The state of the network is captured by an energy
function, E
E = -1/2
k

j
w
kj
s
i
s
k

where s
j
= state of neuron j [0, 1] (i.e. binary state)
Learning process
At each step, choose a neuron at random (say k) and flip its
state s
k
(to - s
k
) by the following probability
w(s
k
-> -s
k
) = (1 + exp(-E
k
/T)]
-1

The state evolves until thermal equilibrium is achieved
Credit-Assignment Problem
How to assign credit and blame for a neural networks
output to its internal (free) parameters ?
This is basically the credit-assignment problem
The learning system (rule) must distribute credit or blame in
such a way that the network evolves to the correct outcomes
Temporal credit-assignment problem
Determining which actions, among a sequence of actions, are
responsible for certain outcomes of the network
Structural credit-assignment problem
Determining which internal components behavior should be
modified and by how much
Supervised Learning (1)
Supervised Learning (2)
Conceptually, supervised learning involves a teacher
who has knowledge of the environment and guides the
training of the network
In practice, knowledge of the environment is in the
form of input-output examples
When viewed as a intelligent agent, this knowledge is current
knowledge obtained from sensors
How is supervised learning applied?
Error-correction learning
Examples of supervised learning algorithms
LMS algorithm
Back-propagation algorithm

Reinforcement Learning (1)
Reinforcement learing is supervised learning in which
limited information of the desired outputs is known
Complete knowledge of the environment is not available;
only basic benefit or reward information
In other words, a critic rather than a teacher guides the
learning process
Reinforcement learning has roots in experimental
studies of animal learning
Training a dog by positive (good dog, something to eat)
and negative (bad dog, nothing to eat) reinforcement
Reinforcement Learning (2)
Reinforcement learning is the online learning of an
input-output mapping through a process of trail and
error designed to maximize a scalar performance index
called reinforcement signal
Types of reinforcement learning
Non-associative: selecting one action instead of associating
actions with stimuli. The only input received from the
environment is reinforcement information. Examples include
genetic algorithms and simulated annealing.
Associative: associating action and stimuli. In other words,
developing a action-stimuli mapping from reinforcement
information received from the environment. This type is
more closely related to neural network learning.
Supervised Vs Reinforcement Learning
Supervised learning Reinforcement learning
Teacher detailed information
available
Critic only reward information
available
Instructive feedback system Evaluative feedback system
Instantaneous and local
information
Delayed and general information
Directed information how
system should adapt
Undirected info system has to
probe with trial and error
Faster training Slower training
Unsupervised Learning (1)
There is no teacher or critic in unsupervised learning
No specific example of the function/model to be learned
A task-independent measure is used to guide the
internal representation of knowledge
The free parameters of the network are optimized with
respect to this measure
Unsupervised Learning (2)
Also known as self-organizing when used in the
context of neural networks
The neural network develops an internal representation of the
inputs without any specific information
Once it is trained it can identify features in the input, based
on the task-independent (or general) criterion
Supervised Vs Unsupervised Learning
Supervised learning Unsupervised learning
Teacher detailed information
available
No specific information
available
Instructive feedback system Task-independent feedback
system
Poor scalability Better scalability
Learning Tasks
Pattern association
Pattern recognition
Function approximation
Control
Filtering
Beamforming

Adaptation and Learning (1)
Learning, as we know it in biological systems, is a
spatiotemporal process
Space and time dimensions are equally significant
Is supervised error-correcting learning spatiotemporal?
Yes and no (trick question )

Stationary environment
Learning one time procedure in which environment
knowledge is built-in (memory) and later recalled for use
Non-stationary environment
Adaptation continually update the free parameters to reflect
the changing environment

e(n) = x(n) - x(n)
where e = error; x = actual input; x = model output

Adaptation needed when e not equal to zero
This means that the knowledge encoded in the neural
network has become outdated requiring modification to
reflect the new environment
How to perform adaptation?
As an adaptive control system
As an adaptive filter (adaptive error-correcting supervised
learning)
Statistical Nature of Learning
Learning can be viewed as a stochastic process
Stochastic process? when there is some element of
randomness (e.g. neural network encoding is not
unique for the same environment that is temporal)
Also, in general, neural network represent just one form of
representation. Other representation forms are also possible.
Regression model
d = g(x) +
where g(x) = actual model; = statistical estimate of error

2 1 Learning

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Learning Process

CS/CMPE 537 Neural Networks

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