SISTEM SARAF I

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Nervous System
Master control and communication system
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Nervous System: Functions
Three overlapping functions
Sensory receptors monitor changes inside and
outside the body
Change a stimulus
Gathered information sensory input
CNS Processes and interprets sensory input
Makes decisions integration
Dictates a response by activating effector organs
Response motor output
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Basic Divisions of the Nervous System: CNS
Central nervous system
(CNS)
Brain and spinal cord
Integrating and
command center

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Basic Divisions of the Nervous System: PNS
Peripheral nervous
system (PNS)
Outside the CNS
Nerves extending
from brain and spinal
cord
Cranial nerves
Spinal nerves
Link all regions of the
body to the CNS
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Sensory Input and Motor Output
Sensory signals picked up by sensory receptors
Carried by afferent nerve fibers of PNS to the CNS
Motor signals are carried away from the CNS
Carried by efferent nerve fibers of PNS to effectors
Innervate muscles and glands
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Sensory Input and Motor Output
Divided according to region they serve
Somatic body region
Visceral body region
Results in four main subdivisions
Somatic sensory
Visceral sensory
Somatic motor
Visceral motor
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Somatic Sensory
Somatic sensory
General somatic senses receptors are widely
spread
Touch, pain, vibration, pressure, and temperature
Proprioceptive senses detect stretch in tendons and
muscle
Body sense position and movement of body in
space
Special somatic senses
Hearing, balance, vision, and smell
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Visceral Sensory
Visceral sensory
General visceral senses stretch, pain, temperature,
nausea, and hunger
Widely felt in digestive and urinary tracts,
reproductive organs
Special visceral senses taste
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Somatic Motor
Somatic motor
General somatic motor signals contraction of
skeletal muscles
Under voluntary control
Often called voluntary nervous system
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Visceral Motor
Visceral motor
Regulates the contraction of smooth and cardiac
muscle and gland secretion
Makes up autonomic nervous system
Controls function of visceral organs
Often called involuntary nervous system
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Peripheral Nervous System Summary
Figure 12.3
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Types of Sensory and Motor Information
Figure 12.3
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Types of Sensory and Motor Information
Figure 12.3
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Nervous Tissue
Cells are densely packed and intertwined
Two main cell types
Neurons transmit electrical signals
Support cells (neuroglial cells) nonexcitable
Surround and wrap neurons
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The Neuron
The human body contains billions of neurons
Basic structural unit of the nervous system
Specialized cells conduct electrical impulses along
the plasma membrane
Graded potentials
Action potentials
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The Neuron: Special Characteristics
Longevity can live and function for a lifetime
Do not divide fetal neurons lose their ability to
undergo mitosis; neural stem cells are an exception
High metabolic rate require abundant oxygen and
glucose
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Neuron Structure
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The Cell Body or Soma (also called Perikaryon)
Size varies from 5140m
Contains nucleus, organelles plus other structures
Chromatophilic bodies (Nissl bodies)
Clusters of rough ER and free ribosomes
Stain darkly and renew membranes of the cell
Neurofibrils bundles of intermediate filaments
Form a network between chromatophilic bodies
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Nissl Body Staining
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The Cell Body

Most neuronal cell bodies
Located within the CNS (clustered in nuclei)
Protected by bones of the skull and vertebral
column
Ganglia clusters of cell bodies in PNS
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Cell Body Structure
Figure 12.4
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Neuron Processes: Dendrites
Dendrites
Extensively branching from
the cell body
Transmit electrical signals
(graded potentials) toward the
cell body
Chromatophilic bodies only
extend into the basal part of
dendrites
Function as receptive sites
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Dendritic Spines
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Dendritic Spines
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Neuron Processes: Axons
Axons (nerve fibers)
Neuron has only one, but it can
branch
Impulse generator and conductor
Transmits action potentials away
from the cell body
Chromatophilic bodies absent
No protein synthesis in axon
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Neuron Processes: Axons
Axons
Neurofilaments, actin
microfilaments, and
microtubules
Provide strength along
length of axon
Aid in the transport of
substances to and
from the cell body
Axonal transport
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Neuron Processes
Neuron Structure
Axons
Branches along length are
infrequent
Axon collaterals
Multiple branches at end of axon
Terminal branches (telodendria)
End in knobs called axon
terminals (also called end bulbs
or boutons)
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Neuron Processes: Action Potentials
Nerve impulse (action potential)
Generated at the initial segment of the
axon
Conducted along the axon
Releases neurotransmitters at axon
terminals
Neurotransmitters excite or inhibit
neurons
Neuron receives and sends signals
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Synapses
Site at which neurons communicate
Signals pass across synapse in one direction
Presynaptic neuron
Conducts signal toward a synapse
Postsynaptic neuron
Transmits electrical activity away from a synapse
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Two Neurons Communicating at a Synapse
Figure 12.6
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Types of Synapses
Axodendritic
Between axon terminals of one neuron and
dendrites of another
Most common type of synapse
Axosomatic
Between axons and neuronal cell bodies
Axoaxonic, dendrodendritic, and dendrosomatic
Less common types of synapses
Function not as well understood
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Types of Synapses
Figure 12.7
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Synapses
Axodendritic synapses representative type
Synaptic vesicles on presynaptic side
Membrane-bound sacs containing neurotransmitters
Mitochondria abundant in axon terminals
Synaptic cleft separates the plasma membrane of the
two neurons
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Structure of a Synapses
Figure 12.8a, b
PLAY Synapse
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Synapse
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Signals Carried by Neurons: Resting Membrane Potential
Plasma membranes of neurons
conduct electrical signals
Resting neuron membrane is
polarized
Inner, cytoplasmic side is
negatively charged
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Changes in Membrane Potential
Signals occur as changes in membrane potential
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Directional Signals
Stimulation of the neuron depolarization
Inhibition of the neuron hyperpolarization
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Action Potentials
Figure 12.9a, b
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Action Potentials on Axons
Strong depolarizing stimulus applied to the axon
hillock triggers
Action potential
Membrane becomes positive internally
Action potential travels the length of the axon
Membrane repolarizes itself
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Action Potentials on Axons
Figure 12.9ce
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Graded Potentials on Dendrites and the Cell Body
Natural stimuli applied to dendrites and the cell
body
Receptive zone of the neuron
Membrane stimulation causes local depolarization
A graded potential inner surface becomes less
negative
Depolarization spreads from receptive zone to the
axon hillock
Acts as the trigger that initiates an action potential in
the axon
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Synaptic Potentials
Excitatory synapses
Neurotransmitters alter the permeability of the
postsynaptic membrane
Leads to an inflow of positive ions
Depolarizes the postsynaptic membrane
Drives the postsynaptic neuron toward impulse
generation
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Synaptic Potentials
Inhibitory synapses
The external surface of the postsynaptic membrane
becomes more positive
Reduces the ability of the postsynaptic neuron to
generate an action potential
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Classification of Neurons
Structural Classification
Functional Classification
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Structural Classification of Neurons
Classification based on number of processes
Multipolar
Bipolar
Unipolar (pseudounipolar)
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Multipolar Neurons
Figure 12.10ac
Possess more than two
processes
Numerous dendrites and
one axon
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Bipolar Neurons
Figure 12.10ac
Possess two processes
Rare neurons found
in some special
sensory organs
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Unipolar (Pseudounipolar) Neurons
Figure 12.10ac
Possess one single process
Start as bipolar neurons
during development
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Functional Classification of Neurons
Classification based on direction of action
potential propagation
Afferents from CNS to periphery
Efferents from periphery to CNS
Interneurons within CNS
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Afferent neurons
Afferent (sensory) neurons
transmit impulses toward the CNS
Virtually all are pseudounipolar neurons (some true
bipolar)
Cell bodies in ganglia outside the CNS
Short, single process divides into
The central process runs centrally into the
CNS
The peripheral process extends peripherally to
the receptors
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Afferent Neurons
Sensory receptors
Axon terminals
Periphery
CNS
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Efferent Neurons
Efferent (motor) neurons
Carry impulses away from the CNS to effector
organs
Most efferent neurons are multipolar
Cell bodies are within the CNS
Form junctions with effector cells
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Interneurons
Interneurons (association neurons) most are
multipolar
Lie between afferent and efferent neurons
Confined to the CNS
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Neurons Classified by Function
Figure 12.11
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Variety of Interneurons
Purkinje cell, stellate cell, granule cell, and basket
cell
Located in the cerebellum
Pyramidal cell located in the cerebral cortex
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Variety of Interneurons
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Glial Cells (Supporting Cells)
Six types of glial cells
Four in the CNS
Two in the PNS
Provide supportive functions for neurons
Cover nonsynaptic regions of the neurons
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Supporting Cells (Neuroglial Cells) in the CNS
Neuroglia usually only refers to supporting cells
in the CNS, but can be used for PNS
Glial cells have branching processes and a central
cell body
Outnumber neurons 10 to 1
Make up half the mass of the brain
Can divide throughout life
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Types of Glial Cells in the CNS
Astrocytes
Microglia
Ependymal Cells
Oligodendrocytes
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Astrocytes
Astrocytes most abundant glial cell type
Take up and release ions to control the environment
around neurons
Recapture and recycle neurotransmitters
Involved with synapse formation in developing
neural tissue
Produce molecules necessary for neural growth
(BDTF)
Propagate calcium signals that may be involved in
memory
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Astrocytes
Figure 12.12a
Necessary for development and maintenance of
theblood brain barrier
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Microglia smallest and
least abundant
Phagocytes
the macrophages
of the CNS
Engulf invading
microorganisms and dead
neurons
Derived from blood cells
called monocytes
Microglia
Figure 12.12b
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Ependymal Cells
Ependymal cells
Line the central cavity of the spinal cord and brain
Bear cilia help circulate the cerebrospinal fluid
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Oligodendrocytes
Oligodendrocytes have few branches
Wrap their cell processes around axons in CNS
Produce myelin sheaths
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Figure 12.13
Supporting Cells in the PNS
Satellite cells surround neuron cell bodies within
ganglia
Schwann cells (neurolemmocytes) surround
axons in the PNS
Form myelin sheath around axons of the PNS
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Myelin Sheaths
Segmented structures composed of the lipoprotein
myelin
Surround thicker axons
Form an insulating layer
Prevent leakage of electrical current
Increase the speed of impulse conduction
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Myelin Sheaths in the PNS
Formed by Schwann cells
Develop during fetal period and in the first year of
postnatal life
Schwann cells wrap in concentric layers around
the axon
Cover the axon in a tightly packed coil of
membranes
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Myelin Sheaths in the PNS
Nodes of Ranvier gaps along axon
Allow current exchange across axon membrane
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Myelin Sheaths in the PNS
Thick axons are myelinated
Fast conduction velocity
Thin axons are unmyelinated
Slow conduction velocity
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Myelin Sheaths in the PNS
Figure 12.14a
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Myelin Sheaths in the PNS myelinated axon
Figure 12.15b
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Myelin Sheaths in the PNS unmyelinated axons
Figure 12.15b
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Myelin Sheaths in the CNS
Oligodendrocytes form the
myelin sheaths in the CNS
Have multiple processes
Coil around several
different axons
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Oligodendrocytes
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Nerves
Nerves cordlike organs in the PNS
Consists of numerous axons wrapped in
connective tissue
Axon is surrounded by Schwann cells
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Nerves
Endoneurium layer of delicate
connective tissue surrounding the
axon
Nerve fascicles groups of axons
bound into bundles
Perineurium connective tissue
wrapping surrounding a nerve
fascicle
Epineurium whole nerve is
surrounded by tough fibrous
sheath
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Simplified Design of the Nervous System
Sensory neurons located dorsally
Cell bodies outside the CNS in sensory ganglia
Central processes enter dorsal aspect of the spinal
cord
Motor neurons located ventrally
Axons exit the ventral aspect of the spinal cord
Interneurons located centrally
Provide communication between sensory and
motor neurons and between levels of the CNS
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Example of Neuronal Organization: Reflexes
Reflex arcs simple neural pathways
Responsible for reflexes
Rapid, autonomic motor responses
Can be visceral or somatic
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Five Essential Components to the Reflex Arc
Receptor detects the stimulus
Afferent (sensory neuron) transmits impulses to
the CNS
Integration center consists of one or more
synapses in the CNS
Efferent (motor neuron) conducts impulses from
integration center to an effector
Effector muscle or gland cell
Responds to efferent impulses
Contraction or secretion
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Example of the Five Components to the Reflex Arc
Figure 12.17
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Reflex Classification
Monosynaptic or polysynaptic
Spinal or cranial
Somatic or autonomic
Innate or learned
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Types of Reflexes: Number of Classes
Monosynaptic reflex simplest of all reflexes
Just one synapse
The fastest of all reflexes
Example knee-jerk reflex
Polysynaptic reflex more common type of reflex
Most have a single interneuron between the sensory
and motor neuron
Example withdrawal reflexes
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Monosynaptic Reflex
Figure 12.18a, b
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Polysynaptic Reflex
Figure 12.18a, b
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Spinal vs Cranial Reflexes
Spinal = spinal cord integration center
Ex. Knee-jerk reflex
Cranial = brain as integration center
Ex. Pupillary light reflex
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Somatic vs Autonomic Reflexes
Somatic = motor neurons to skeletal muscles
Ex. Knee-jerk reflex
Autonomic = autonomic neurons to smooth
muscle and glands
Ex. Pupillary light reflex
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Innate vs Learned Reflexes
Innate = born-with
Knee-jerk reflex, pupillary reflex
Learned = develops based on experiences
Pavlovs dogs salivation in response to bell
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Neuronal Circuits
Diverging circuit
Converging circuit
Reverberating circuit
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Diverging Circuit
Diverging circuit one presynaptic
neuron synapses with several other
neurons (divergence)
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Converging Circuit
Converging circuit many
neurons synapse on a single
postsynaptic neuron
(convergence)
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Reverberating Circuit
Reverberating circuit circuit
that receives feedback via a
collateral axon from a neuron
in the circuit
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Neural Processing
Serial processing
Parallel processing
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Serial Processing
Serial processing neurons pass a
signal to a specific destination along
a single pathway from one to
another
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Parallel Processing
Parallel processing input is
delivered along many pathways; a
single sensory stimulus results in
multiple perceptions
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Gray versus White Matter in the Central Nervous System
Gray matter
Cell bodies
Dendrites
Synapses
White matter
Axons (myelin)

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Gray Matter in the Spinal Cord
Gray matter in the spinal cord
H-shaped (butterfly) region surrounds central cavity
Dorsal half contains cell bodies of interneurons
Ventral half contains cell bodies of motor neurons
Cell bodies are clustered in the gray matter
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White Matter in the Spinal Cord
White matter in the spinal cord
Located externally to the gray matter
Contains no neuronal cell bodies, but millions of axons
Myelin sheath white color
Consists of axons running between different parts of
the CNS
Tracts bundles of axons traveling to similar
destinations
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Gray Matter in Brain
Cortex and nuclei
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White Matter in Brain
Pathways, tracts and commissures
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Disorders of the Nervous System
Multiple sclerosis common cause of neural
disability
Varies widely in intensity among those affected
Cause is incompletely understood
An autoimmune disease
Immune system attacks the myelin around axons in
the CNS